MUSICAL BORROWING:

[Unsigned]. "Larry Adler to Unveil Gershwin String Quartet at Edinburgh Festival." Variety 231 (5 June 1963): 43.

Gershwin's Lullably, for string quartet, premiered at the 1963 festival, is an early work whose primary material was later re-used by Gershwin for part of the score for the Scandals of 1922. (JAJ)

Index classifications: 1900s

[Unsigned]. "New Gershwin Tunes Featured in Movie." Down Beat 31 (23 April 1964): 14-15.

Billy Wilder's 1964 film Kiss Me Stupid re-used some Gershwin songs used previously (during the composer's lifetime) and introduced some new ones (posthumously). The new songs were released to the public for the first time from the composer's musical notebooks.

Works: Gershwin: 'S Wonderful, I'm a Poached Egg, All the Livelong Day, Sophia. (JAJ)

Index classifications: 1900s, Popular, Film

Aarburg, Ursula, ed. Singweisen zur Liebeslyrik der deutschen Frühe. Düsseldorf: Pädagogischer Verlag Schwann, 1956.

Index classifications: Monophony to 1300, Polyphony to 1300

Aarburg, Ursula. "Ein Beispiel zur mittelalterlichen Kompositionstechnik. Die Chanson R. 1545 von Blondel de Nesle und ihre mehrstimmigen Vertonungen." Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 15 (1958): 20-40.

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Aarburg, Ursula. "Melodien zum frühen deutschen Minnesang." Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 87 (July 1956): 24-45. Revised in Der deutsche Minnesang: Aufsätze zu seiner Erforschung, ed. Hans Fromm, 378-423. Wege der Forschung, no. 15. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1961.

Index classifications: Monophony to 1300

Abbate, Carolyn. "Tristan in the Composition of Pelléas." 19th-Century Music 5 (Fall 1981): 117-41.

The model for the composition of Pelléas is Tristan und Isolde. The intent is to avoid the recollection of Wagner, but numerous recollections are present. These recollections take the form of orchestration and of musical material. Quotations of Wagner occur most often in the interludes (pp. 138-140). Debussy is viewed as a commentator on Wagner both in the way he used certain Wagnerian lois (especially the system of metaphorical tonality in which the order and choice of keys rests upon textual and not upon functional harmonic exigency, pp. 129-32) and in the way he alluded to the earlier works.

Works: Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande.

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde. (DCB)

Index classifications: 1800s

Abert, Anna Amalie. "Das Nachleben des Minnesangs im liturgischen Spiel." Die Musikforschung 1 (1948): 95-105.

Index classifications: Monophony to 1300

Abraham, Gerald. "The Folk-Song Element." Chap. in Studies in Russian Music. London: W. Reeves, [1935].

In the use of folk tunes, Glinka was concerned with nothing more than stringing them together into frankly popular fantasias. Efforts of later composers to fuse these tunes into complicated musical organisms (sonata-form on the symphonic scale) failed, according to Abraham, (1) because folk songs are not suited to such treatment and (2) because these composers had a fundamentally wrong conception of Russian folk music as homophonic. The discovery of the polyphonic nature of a great deal of Russian folk-music came just too late to influence the development of Russian art music. The only successful symphonic handling of folk tunes was a matter of "good taste," being shown in the avoidance of virtuosity in the treatment of the material and in not making it an excuse for "talking about oneself." To absorb a great deal of the folk idiom (as Mussorgsky did) and invent original themes from that root was a more successful way to get around the implications of using an original folk tune.

Works: Borodin: Prince Igor (46); Tchaikovsky: String Quartet No. 1 (47), Symphony in F Minor (48f), 1812 Overture (48); Rimsky-Korsakov: Hundred Russian Folk-Songs, Op. 24 (47f), Overture on Russian Themes (48), Easter Festival Overture (54), Capriccio Espagnol (54), Sinfonietta, Op. 31 (55); Balakirev: Overture on Three Russian Themes in B Minor (48), A Thousand Years (52f.); Beethoven: String Quartet No. 8 in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 (55); Mussorgsky: Boris Godunov (55).

Sources: Sidel Vanyz (47), Vo pole bereza stoyala (48), "Over the field creeps the mist" (56). (AG)

Index classifications: 1800s

Abraham, Gerald. "Operas and Incidental Music." In The Music of Tchaikovsky, ed. Gerald Abraham, 124-83. 2d ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1974.

Index classifications: 1800s

Adams, Courtney S. "The Three-Part Chanson during the Sixteenth Century: Changes in Its Style and Importance." Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1974.

Index classifications: 1500s

Adams, Courtney. "The Early Chanson Anthologies Published by Pierre Attaingnant (1528-1530)." Journal of Musicology 5 (Fall 1987): 526-48.

Among the Attaingnant publications between 1528 and 1530, there are several cases of borrowings and duplications of the following kinds: (1) In four pieces (out of approximately 350) duplication involves more than one part. (2) The borrowing of a single melodic line from a four-part chanson for use in another chanson à 4 is rare. (3) Cases in which three- and four-voice works share the same text have a musical connection: they mostly share the superius. That one chanson is modeled on another one is difficult to prove. But if two chansons employ similar melodic contours, use the same cadential note for each phrase, and duplicate a harmonic passage as well, then the argument for borrowing is good.

Works: Attaingnant: Or plaise a Dieu (533), En souspirant (534), Une pastourelle gentille (534), En regardant son gratieux maintien (535).

Sources: Attaingnant: En devisant (533), Si vostre couer (534), Quand vous vouderz faire une amye (534), En regardant son gratieux maintien (535), De toy me plaintz (536). (AG)

Index classifications: 1500s

Adams, Courtney. "Some Aspects of the Chanson for Three Voices During the Sixteenth Century." Acta Musicologica 49 (1977): 227-50.

While some three-part pieces written before 1520 were given a si placet fourth part, the majority of concordant three- and four-part chansons show the reverse: four-part chansons before 1550 were most often turned into three-part pieces by removing a line, usually the contratenor. In evaluating individual pieces to determine the presence of preexistent material, the following should be considered: (1) the presence of defective harmonic writing; (2) the range and character of the questionable voice (an unusual number of semiminims, frequent voice crossing, or a general low range of all the voices would suggest a four-part original); (3) the presence of more than one cantus firmus among concordances of a given piece; (4) comparison of questionable pieces with others by the same composer.

Works: Anonymous: Amour vault trop qui bien (240); Conflicting attributions: Amy, soufrez que je vous ayme (240-41); Anonymous: Ces facheux sotz qui mesdisent d'aymer (241); Ninot le Petit or Willaert: C'est donc par moy (241); Janequin: De son amour me donne jouyssance (241-42); Anonymous: En regardant son gratieux maintien (242), Fortune, less-moy la vie (242), J'ay trop aymé, vrayment je le confesse (242), Je ne sçay pas comment (242-43); Claudin: Jouyssance vous donneray (243), Languir me fais sans t'avoir offensé (244); Anonymous: Le cueur est bon et le vouloir aussi (244); Costely: Ma douce fleur, ma marguerite (244); Tomas Janequin: Nous bergiers et nous bergieres (245); Janequin: Or sus, or sus vous dormez trop (245); Créquillon or Richafort: Or vray Dieu qu'il ennuyeux (245-46); de la Rue: Pour ung jamais ung regret me demeure (246); Janequin: S'il est si doulx par quoy n'est doncques moindre (246-47); Anonymous: Si vostre coeur prent le tenné (247); Claudin: Si vous m'aymez, donnez m'en asseurance (247); Arcadelt: S'on pouvoit acquérir (247-48). (JFA)

Index classifications: 1500s

Adams, Stephen. R. Murray Schafer. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983.

In this treatment of the life and work of Schafer, several examples of borrowing are discussed. Son of Heldenleben (1968) is based on Strauss's Ein Heldenleben, and it demonstrates Schafer's ambivalence toward the Romantic era. Strauss's first theme serves as a cantus firmus in extreme augmentation for most of the piece, and other borrowed themes are presented in a rush at the end of the work. Written for orchestra and tape, Schafer's piece praises and belittles Strauss simultaneously, a conflict which is audible. Besides the direct quotations, two tone rows are derived from Strauss. Adieu, Robert Schumann (1976) is an example of collage, as it uses quotations from several of Schumann's works, including Kreisleriana and Carnaval. Written for a contralto, who plays the role of Clara Schumann, and orchestra, the work takes place in the last days before Schumann's death in a mental institution. It exemplifies Schafer's ability to blend old and new styles to create something distinctly his own.

Works: Schafer: Son of Heldenleben (110-17), Adieu, Robert Schumann (158-60).

Sources: Richard Strauss: Ein Heldenleben, Robert Schumann: Kreisleriana, Carnaval. (JS)

Index classifications: 1900s

Adrio, Adam. "Heinrich Schütz und Italien." In Bekenntnis zu Heinrich Schütz, ed. Adam Adrio et al., 55-64. Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag, 1954.

Index classifications: 1600s

Adrio, Adam. "Die Weisen der böhmischen Brüder im Werk Ernst Peppings." In Musicae Scientiae Collectanea: Festschrift Gustav Fellerer zum siebzigsten Geburtstag am 7. Juli 1972, ed. Heinrich Hüschen, 23-34. Köln: Arno-Volk-Verlag, 1973.

Cantus firmus is treated differently in several a cappella works by Ernst Pepping. All the pieces selected borrow from the sacred songs of the Bohemian Brothers.

Works: Works: Pepping: Deutsche Choralmesse für sechsstimmigen Chor (23), Spandauer Chorbuch (23), Liedmotetten nach Weisen der Böhmischen Brüder für Chor a capella (24ff.), Gesänge der Böhmischen Brüder in Variationen für Chor a cappella (31). (AG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Alexander, Michael J. The Evolving Keyboard Style of Charles Ives. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Keele, 1984. Reprinted verbatim, New York and London: Garland, 1989.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Allanbrook, Wye Jamison. Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983.

Index classifications: 1700s

Allanbrook, Wye Jamison. "Comic Issues in Mozart's Piano Concertos." In Mozart's Piano Concertos: Text, Context, Interpretation, ed. Neal Zaslaw, 75-105. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The University of Michigan Press, 1999.

There are two kinds of self-referential aspects in Mozart's piano concertos: reminiscences of or allusions to specific works, and generic references to characteristic styles. It is easy to assume that Mozart frequently borrowed specifically from his opere buffe in his piano concertos, based on fortuitous similarities. However, the contribution of buffa in Mozart's piano concerto writing is mainly in its procedure, the most prominent effect being the achievement of closure. For example, the buffa gesture of repetitive cadences serves as a function of syntax when transposed to classical concerto style, reaffirming the tonic for a convincing closure and serving as a climax of rhythmic motive developing throughout the movement. Another "buffa echo" is the coda itself. The introduction of new materials, a quickened pulse and layering voices parallels the buffa finale. It is the interplay of solo and orchestra in the concerto that allows the dramatic operatic device to be incorporated.

Works: Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 14 in E-flat Major, K. 449 (76-85), Piano Concerto No. 15 in B-flat Major, K. 450 (86, 88), Piano Concerto No. 19 in F Major, K. 459 (94-97), Piano Concerto No. 17 in G Major, K. 453 (98, 100), Piano Concerto No. 20 in D Major, K. 466 (99, 101).

Sources: Mozart: Le nozze di Figaro, "Terzetto" (II, 13) (76), "Susanna or via sortite" (78, 80-81), and "Aprite un po' quegli occhi" (86-89), Don Giovanni, "Ho, Capito" (89-93). (TC)

Index classifications: 1700s

Allsen, J. Michael. "Intertextuality and Compositional Process in Two Cantilena Motets by Hugo de Lantins." Journal of Musicology 11 (Spring 1993): 174-202.

A comparison of the motet O lux decus Hispanie to the motet on which it was based, Christus vincit, shows how musical material was re-worked to serve different texts. The text of Christus vincit is a laudatory tribute to Doge Francesco Foscari. The prima pars is built on a number of points of imitation specific to the text. The secunda pars uses an unusual mensural shift, a sesquitertia proportion but with coloration, probably inspired by the text. In O lux decus Hispanie, an antiphon from a rhymed Office for St. James the Greater, changes to the music of the prima pars help obscure the original points of imitation and thus give more continuous declamation. Changes in mensuration also affect the proportions between the lengths of the two partes. Although Christus vincit is the parent work, there is no evidence to prove that Hugo de Lantins had any direct role in the creation of O lux decus Hispanie.

Works: Hugo de Lantins: O lux decus Hispanie.

Sources: Hugo de Lantins: Christus vincit. (FC)

Index classifications: 1400s

Allsen, J. Michael. "Style and Intertextuality in the Isorhythmic Motet 1400-1440." Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1992.

Index classifications: 1400s

Altmann, Peter. Sinfonia von Luciano Berio: Eine analytische Studie. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1977.

In the third movement of his Sinfonia, Berio uses collage on three levels. (1) The Scherzo ("Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt") from Mahler's Second Symphony, of which the proportions remain essentially the same, makes up the structural basis. The addition stresses the proportional importance of the fateful number eleven standing for imperfection, which in turn is related to the meaning of Mahler's scherzo. (2) In the course of the whole movement, Berio quotes composers from Bach through Stockhausen, and while we recognize some of the quotations immediately, others can hardly be perceived. (3) The text consists of passages from Beckett's novel The Unnamable interspersed with words by Joyce, expression marks, political slogans, and phonetic material. Mahler's music implies the quotations on the second level, be it tonally (Berio even changed some notes for tonal reasons), motivically (the minor second functions as a central motive), programmatically, or by instrumentation. Even the disposition of the text follows Mahler and it is often only through the text that we can identify musical quotations. This kind of collage therefore does not destroy but reinterprets the "Fischpredigt." The study includes some didactic suggestions.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 2; Berio: Sinfonia. (AG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Altmann, Wilhelm. "Ist Bruckners sogenanntes Choralthema seine eigene Erfindung?" Allgemeine Musik-Zeitung 47 (February 1920): 100.

Index classifications: 1800s

Ameln, Konrad. "Die 'Silberweise' von Hans Sachs: Vorlage evangelischer Kirchenlieder?" Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie 21 (1977): 132-37.

Index classifications: 1500s

Anderson, Gordon A. "A New Look at an Old Motet." Music and Letters 49 (January 1968): 18-20.

The tenor of the Latin motet Homo, mundi paleas from Wolfenbüttel 1099 is designated Et gaudebit, but the melody is actually Et florebit. Observance of this scribal error allows identification of the motet as a contrafactum of a French motet in the same manuscript, Chascun qui de bien amer.

Works: Homo, mundi paleas.

Sources: Chascun qui de bien amer. (RLS)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Anderson, Gordon A. "Newly Identified Tenor Chants in the Notre Dame Repertory." Music and Letters 50 (January 1969): 158-71.

Identification of the tenor is accompanied by a discussion of concordances and structural and textual features in the following motets: from the Wolfenbüttel 1099 manuscript, Canticum letitie, A grant joie, and He! mounier porrai je moudre?; from the Madrid manuscript, Ave gloriose plena gratie; from the Las Huelgas manuscript, Nos. 84, 94, 112, and 141 (Clama, ne cesses, Syon filia/Alleluia); and the English four-part motet, Ave miles de cuius militia/Ave miles, O Edlkude/textless quartus cantus/Ablue. Of the three chant segments, "Potentiam," "De," and "Te," which are the tenors of clausula settings in the Florence manuscript, the first and third are identified and the implications discussed. Speculation is made as to the tenor of the double motet Quomodo fiet id/O virgo virginum/O stupor omnium in modum. (RLS)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Anderson, Gordon A. "A Troped Offertorium-Conductus of the Thirteenth Century." Journal of the American Musicological Society 24 (Spring 1971): 96-100.

In a late volume of Analecta Hymnica, Clemens Blume selected eighteen texts that are "Tropi ad Offertorium 'Recordare.'" The first two in his edition have an extant polyphonic setting, while the remainder are known only in plain-chant settings or by their texts alone. The second text, O vera, o pia, is the newly identified contrafactum setting. It ends with the troped word nobis, an anomaly which falls outside the rhyme scheme of the text. This feature, rare in condunctus texts, prompted a search for the source of its tenor. The melody is that of the last verse of the Offertorium Recordare, Virgo Mater, which closely follows the chant melody, taken from W1. From a stylistic and historical viewpoint, the most important aspect is the use of a troped word in the text, a practice that had hitherto been found only in motets among polyphonic works outside the obviously troped settings. (MP)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Anderson, Gordon A. "Clausulae or Transcribed-Motets in the Florence Manuscript?" Acta musicologica 42 (1970): 109-28.

The clausulae of Florence, Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana, Pluteo 29.1 are not transcriptions of motets. Many of the clausulae have short melismas at the end, which would render them unrelated to existing motets. Anomalies in notation do exist, but these can be reconciled through the application of standard fractio modi and the use of some system of equipollentia, already in use in the cum littera sections of contemporary conductus. (FC)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Anderson, Gordon A. "A Small Collection of Notre Dame Motets ca. 1215-1235." Journal of the American Musicological Society 22 (Summer 1969): 157-96.

The LoC manuscript (London Add. 30091) contains fourteen motets that may be divided into two equal halves of seven pieces representing two different styles. All the concordances are listed and each motet is placed in the historical position of the manuscript itself and in the repertory of the early motet (1200-1245). In contrast to the motets nos. 1-7, nos. 8-14 have no clausula source and do not go back to an earlier Latin motet or a version in the old conductus-style. They are contrafacta of bilingual motets, but in contrast to the first group they have hardly been reworked thereafter. From this and other stylistic features, it may be concluded that the second group must be at least twenty years younger than the first. No other manuscript shows the shift from bilingual to Latin contrafacta as clearly as LoC. Adam de la Halle's motet J'os bien a m'amie parler/Je n'os a m'amie aler/(In) seculum may be modeled on the original Latin version of Eva quid deciperis/In seculum.

Works: Works: Anonymous motets including contrafacta: Salve salus hominum/O radians stella/Nostrum (161-62); O Maria, decus angelorum/Nostrum (161, 164); Tu decus es decoris/O Maria, beata genitrix/Nostrum (161, 164); Plus bele que/Quant revient/L'autr'ier jouer/Flos filius eius (165); Quant revient/L'autr'ier jouer/Flos filius eius (165); Candida virginitas/Flos filius eius (165-66); Castrum pudicitie/Virgo viget/Flos filius eius (165-66); Flos ascendit/Flos filius eius (167-68); Ne sai que je die/Johanne (170-71); Cecitas arpie fex/Johanne (170-71); Tedet intueri/Te decet (172-75); El mois d'avril/Al cor ai une/Et gaudebit (175); Ypocrite pseudopontifices/Velut stella/Et gaudebit (175-76); Virgo Virginum/Et gaudebit (175-76); Memor tui creatoris/Et gaudebit (175-76); O felix puerpera flos virginum/In seculum (180-81); Hac in die dulce melos/Cumque evigilasset (182); Hac in die dulce melos/Spes vite miseries/Cumque evigilasset (182-83); Balaam, prophetandi patuit/Balaam (183-84); Arbor nobilis/Crux forma penitentie/Sustinere (185-87); Cruci Domini/Crux forma penitentie/Sustinere (185-87); Eva quid deciperis/In seculum (187-88); Adam de la Halle: J'os bien a m'amie parler/Je n'os a m'amie aler/(In) seculum (188-89). (AG)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Andraschke, Peter. "Gustav Mahlers IX. Symphonie: Kompositionsprozess und Analyse." Ph.D. diss., University of Freiburg, 1973.

Index classifications: 1900s

Andraschke, Peter. "Das revolutionär-politische Zitat in der avantgardistischen Musik nach 1965." Musik und Bildung 11 (May 1979): 313-18.

Although Stockhausen, Nono, and Henze approach the preexistent material differently, they all try to combine simple, tonal melodies with the complex structures of sound (Klangstrukturen) of the avantgarde around 1967. In his Hymnen, Stockhausen borrows different national anthems to represent internationality and disparities between nations. He develops, for example, the Internationale in a way that underlines the program of the composition, the struggle for a peaceful world, gradually synchronizing different layers of sound. Nono's Per Bastiana--Tai-Yang Cheng does not borrow the (communist) Chinese folk song The East Is Red in a traditional way. The pentatonic melody and its intervallic structure permeate the whole composition. "Tai-Yang Cheng," a textual quotation from the song, expresses Nono's hope for a "red shining life" of his daughter Bastiana under the banner of communism. Henze expresses the difficulties of our West-European world by attempting to write a symphony in 1969 with traditional techniques and dead (kaputt) musical material and his admiration for communist Cuba (the piece was written for Havana) by quoting Cuban folk songs and communist tunes (such as the song of the National Liberation Front in Vietnam, Stars of the Night).

Works: Stockhausen: Hymnen, Nono: Per Bastiana--Tai-Yang Cheng; Henze: Sinfonia No. 6 for two Chamber Orchestras (315-17).

Sources: Marseillaise (314-15), Internationale (314-15), The East is Red (315), Stars of the Night (316). (AG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Andraschke, Peter. "Traditionsmomente in Kompositionen von Christóbal Halffter, Klaus Huber und Wolfgang Rihm." In Die neue Musik und die Tradition: Sieben Kongressbeiträge und eine analytische Studie, ed. Reinhold Brinkmann, 130-52. Mainz: Schott, 1978.

Halffter, Rihm, and Huber use quotations with different intentions. Halffter's Noche pasiva del sentido makes extensive use of a descending four-tone motive that not only associates the piece with Spanish folklore in general but also plays an important role in Ravel's Rhapsodie espagnole. Rihm modeled the fourth movement of his String Quartet No. 3 over long stretches on the "Cavatina" from Beethoven's String Quartet, Op. 130; some of the thematic material is derived from Beethoven and the movements show similar outlines. "Genesis," the first movement from Huber's Violin Concerto (Tempora) represents the emergence of sound from "primitive noises" (Urgeräusche), including in this process a structurally important quotation of the B-A-C-H motive. The third movement, "quod libet," displays its link to the classical tradition by including literal quotations, thus alluding to the contraction "quodlibet." In his ...inwendig voller figur..., Huber reuses material from the second ("De Natura") and last ("quod nescitur") movements of his Violin Concerto, relating Dürer's sketch Traumgesicht and texts of the apocalypse of John.

Works: Halffter: Noche pasiva del sentido (131-35); Rihm: In Innersten (String Quartet No. 3, 138-43); Huber: Tempora 143-50), . . . inwendig voller figur . . . (146, 149). (AG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Anglés, Higinio. "L'epístola farcida de Sant Esteve." Vida Cristiana 10 (1922-23): 69-75.

Index classifications: Monophony to 1300

Anthony, John Philip. "The Organ Works of Johann Christian Kittel." 2 vols. Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1978.

Index classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Antonowytsch, Myroslaw. Die Motette 'Benedicta es' von Josquin des Prez und die Messen 'super Benedicta' von Willaert, Palestrina, de la Hêle und de Monte. Utrecht: Wed. J. R. van Rossum, 1951.

Index classifications: 1500s

Antonowytsch, Myroslaw. "Das Parodieverfahren in der Missa Mater Patris von Lupus Hellinck." In Renaissance-muziek, 1400-1600, Donum natalicium René Bernard Lenaerts, ed. Jozef Robijns, 33-38. Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit Seminarie voor Muziekwetenschap, 1969.

Index classifications: 1500s

Antonowytsch, Myroslaw. "Renaissance-Tendenzen in den Fortuna-desperata-Messen von Josquin und Obrecht." Die Musikforschung 9 (1956): 1-26.

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Apel, Willi. "Imitation Canons on L'homme armé." Speculum 25 (1950): 367-73.

The L'homme armé melody served as a musical basis for many Masses in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In general, the Masses disregard the secular text, and instead use the melody as a cantus firmus. The L'homme armé Masses of Dufay, Busnois, Caron and others simply use this melody as a cantus firmus in the tenor; all other musical material is newly composed. However, there are many Masses in which the L'homme armé melody is used in canonic imitation, which draws more attention to the source melody. The use of contrapuntal imitation varies in degree and strictness in these masses, ranging from extensive, strict canon to occasional, less strict imitation. Techniques involved in these imitation canons include augmentation, imitation at various intervals (e.g., the fifth, the second), use of the cantus firmus in all voices, and mensuration canon (in which each voice part features the cantus firmus in a different meter).

Works: Dufay: Missa L'homme armé (369); Busnois: Missa L'homme armé (369); Caron: Missa L'homme armé (369); Fagues: Missa L'homme armé (369); Regis: Missa L'homme armé (369); Ockeghem: Missa L'homme armé (370); De Orto: Missa L'homme armé (370); Basiron: Missa L'homme armé (370); Tinctoris: Missa L'homme armé (370-71); Vaqueras: Missa L'homme armé (371); Josquin: Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales (372); La Rue: Missa L'homme armé (372-73).

Sources: L'homme armé (367-73). (VLM)

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Aplin, John. "Cyclic Techniques in the Earliest Anglican Services." Journal of the American Musicological Society 35 (Fall 1982): 409-35.

The English Prayer Book of 1552 made the traditional five-movement Ordinary cycle a thing of the past, but composers began expanding the possibilities of cyclic groupings by including elements from Matins and Evensong. Sheppard in particular began expanding the use of head motive and end-of-movement material, linking movements thematically and placing the motives at various places in the individual movements. William Mundy, in composing a missing Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis for Robert Parsons' First Service, utilizes motives already found in Parsons.

Works: William Mundy: Magnificat, Nunc Dimittis (427-28).

Sources: Robert Parsons: First Service (421-27). (FC)

Index classifications: 1500s

Arauco, Ingrid. "Bartók's Romanian Christmas Carols: Changes from the Folk Sources and Their Significance." Journal of Musicology 5 (Spring 1987): 191-225.

Four sources provide the basis for the study of Bartók's folk song arrangements, the Romanian Christmas Carols: (1) the transcriptions from the recordings he made on location; (2) notebook entries of melodies written down on-the-spot; (3) the versions of the carols as given in the preface to Bartók's Romanian Folk Music, vol. 4; and (4) the arrangement. Arauco especially examines changes between sources (2) and (3) and interprets them as a rapprochement to Western art music. Removal of incidental tones and ornaments, repositioning of barlines, and alteration of notes and rhythms clarify the harmonic and motivic phrase structures, which become easier to understand for listeners familiar with the tradition of Western art music and to some extent make up for the loss of the text originally comprising that function. Arauco argues that the change of elements incidental to the essence of the folk song not only adds structural clarity but, as a consequence, also reinforces the "inner emotive power."

Works: Bartók: Romanian Christmas Carols.

Sources: carols collected by Bartók in Transylvania, 1910-14 (193-95). (AG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Armitage, Merle. George Gershwin. New York: Van Rees, 1958.

Like Bartók and Stravinsky, Gershwin was both a discoverer and an inventor (pp. 39-59). Many of his musical sources were African-American and Jewish, and he was inventive in the areas of rhythmic variation, placement of accents, and color. Gershwin observed a large population of Gullah Negroes on Folly Island in order to compose the score of his "folk opera" Porgy and Bess (pp. 149-53). He had great difficulty with the critics for his "vulgar" borrowing from the jazz idiom (pp. 84-121).

Works: Gershwin: Porgy and Bess, Piano Concerto, An American in Paris. (DB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Arnold, Stephen. "The Music of Taverner." Tempo, no. 101 (1972): 20-39.

As a means of facilitating communication with his audience, Peter Maxwell Davies employs parody technique. His works reflect both the OED definition of "a composition in which an author's characteristics are ridiculed by imitation" and the 16th-century definition, in which a chanson or motet was drawn upon for the Mass setting, either by using its theme as a cantus firmus or by subjecting the material to some more elaborate process of modification and fragmentation. An examination of the musico-dramatic structure of Davies's opera Taverner provides examples of both varieties of the technique.

Works: Peter Maxwell Davies: Taverner, St. Thomas Wake (Foxtrot for Orchestra) (21).

Sources: St. Thomas Wake (21), John Taverner: In Nomine (22), Gloria Tibi Trinitas (25), Davies: Second Fantasia on Taverner's 'In Nomine', Victimae Paschali Laudes (plainsong) (29). (AW)

Index classifications:

Atkinson, Charles M. "The Earliest Agnus Dei Melody and Its Tropes." Journal of the American Musicological Society 30 (Spring 1977): 1-19.

The oldest known Agnus Dei melody, Melody 226 in Martin Schildbach's Das einstimmige Agnus Dei und seine handschriftliche überlieferung vom 10. bis zum 16. Jahrhundert, appears with additional verses in its earliest sources, raising the question of whether these are tropes or whether all the music was composed at the same time. In the ninth century the function of the Agnus Dei became dissociated from an extended rite of Fraction, and its form became that of threefold repetition. As the Agnus Dei moved into Frankish regions, geographically distinct repertoires of associated verses came to be identified. The interior verses that appear with Melody 226 are more syllabic and differ from the Agnus Dei melody itself with regard to range, tessitura, and ductus, suggesting that the interior verses are in fact tropes. (FC)

Index classifications: Monophony to 1300

Atlas, Allan W. "Conflicting Attributions in Italian Sources of the Franco-Netherlandish Chanson, c. 1465-c. 1505: A Progress Report on a New Hypothesis." In Music in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Patronage, Sources and Texts, ed. Iain Fenlon, 249-94. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

An examination of some seventy-six pieces with conflicting attributions suggests that the question of attribution is not one of scribal error but rather a case of compositional revision of the work of one composer by another. Many conflicting attributions involve composers who were associated with one another in some special way, often by having been colleagues at a court or cathedral. In some cases these compositional revisions involve the entire polyphonic fabric, but more often only a single voice is involved, usually the contratenor. Sometimes different attributions are given for similar readings of existing variants; in that case, the variants may be a case of a scribe not knowing which reading to attribute to which composer. Conflicting attributions may help offer clues to lacunae in a composer's biography: Hayne van Ghizeghem and Johannes Japart are composers whose careers may be expanded in this way. Tables give all seventy-six pieces with conflicting attributions plus the twenty-three base sources from which they are drawn.

Works: Johannes Martini/Heinrich Isaac: Des biens (257-58, 278), La Martinella (257, 260, 261-62, 278); Malcourt/Johannes Martini/Johannes Ockeghem: Malheure me bat (257, 259-60, 279); Jacob Obrecht/Virgilius: Nec michi, nec tibi (258, 260, 263, 279); Antoine Busnois/Hayne van Ghizeghem: J'ay bien choisie (260, 264, 278); Antoine Busnois/Heinrich Isaac: Sans avoir (260, 265, 279); Josquin des Prez/Johannes Japart: J'ay bien rise tant (260-61, 265, 278); Alexander Agricola/Loyset Compère: La saison en est (261, 266, 279); Petrus Congiet/Johannes Japart: Je cuide (261, 266, 278); Loyset Compère/Pietrequin Bonnel: Mais que ce fust secretement (261, 267, 279); John Bedingham/Walter Frye: So ys emprentid (268, 281); Gilles Binchois/Walter Frye: Tout a par moy (269,278); Adrien Basin/[illegible]: Madame faites moy (269-71, 281); Barbingant/Johannes Fedé: L'homme banni (269, 271, 272, 281). (FC)

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Atlas, Allan W. "Heinrich Isaac's Palle, Palle: A New Interpretation." Analecta musicologica 14 (1974): 17-25.

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Aubry, Pierre. Recherches sur les "Tenors" latins dans les motets du triezième siècle d'après le manuscrit de Montpellier bibliothèque universitaire H. 196. Paris: Champion, 1907.

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Auh, Mijai Youn. "Piano Variations by Brahms, Liszt and Friedman on a Theme by Paganini." D.M. diss., Indiana University, 1980.

An introduction to Paganini's place in history and his contributions includes background information on the 24th Caprice of Op. 1, an analysis of its theme, and a list of works (p. 28) based on this theme. Auh provides introductions and analyses of Liszt's sixth Grande etude, Brahms's Variations on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 35, and Friedman's Studies on a Theme by Paganini, Op. 46b, and compares the elements of retention and variability of the original theme, variation technique, grouping for performance, and technical musical difficulties. Almost all of the variations assume the basic structure and given harmony of Paganini's theme; thus the variation techniques used are mainly of harmony, rhythm, and character.

Works: Johannes Brahms: Variations on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 35; Ferrucio Busoni: An die Jugend (7); Ignaz Friedman: Studies on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 46b; Franz Liszt: Etudes d'execution transcendente d'après Paganini (7), Grosse Paganini-Etuden; Robert Schumann: Studies after Caprices of Paganini, Op. 3 (7), 6 Concert Etudes after Caprices of Paganini, Op. 10 (7). (JP)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Auner, Joseph H. "Schoenberg's Handel Concerto and the Ruins of Tradition." Journal of the American Musicological Society 49 (Summer 1996): 264-313.

In the early 1930s, Schoenberg transcribed and recomposed compositions of the Baroque era to reaffirm his position in the lineage of German composers during a time when Germany was under the government of the National Socialists. Schoenberg described his Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra as "freely transcribed" from Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 7. Its reworking is different from that of Schoenberg's arrangements of Bach and Brahms, as it alters the original much more, using techniques such as reharmonization, the addition of contrapuntal parts, and compressing and expanding the material. Schoenberg reinterprets Handel's music most freely in the third movement. In so doing, he created a duality between the past and the present and contrasted Baroque tonality and compositional techniques with the chromatic/atonal traditions of the twentieth century. Schoenberg also transposed the third movement to a new key, changed the tempo from Andante to Allegro grazioso, and imposed a formal Sonata-Allegro plan onto the material. This work suggests Schoenberg's identity crisis as German and Jewish as well as the larger social and cultural world of the 1930s (specifically 1933), when the work was composed.

Works: Schoenberg: Cello Concerto (264, 285-86), Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra (265-69, 271, 287-313).

Sources: Georg Matthias Monn: Keyboard Concerto F. 41 (264); Handel: Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 7 (265-66, 287-313). (MEG/MDA)

Index classifications: 1900s

Auslander, Philip. "Intellectual Property Meets the Cyborg: Performance and the Cultural Politics of Technology." Performing Arts Journal 14, no. 1 (January 1992): 30-42.

Index classifications: 1900s, Popular

Austern, Linda Phyllis. "Musical Parody in the Jacobean City Comedy." Music and Letters 66 (October 1985): 355-66.

The early seventeenth century witnessed the rise of the English dramatic genre known as city comedy or citizen comedy, a play characterized by a contemporary London setting, recognizable character types from the social milieux between manual laborers and prosperous merchants, colloquial diction, and predominantly satirical tone. Another marked feature, overlooked by musicologists until recently, is its realistic use of contemporary English music, thus providing a unique documentation of the varied musical practices and beliefs of contemporary London. It must also be considered the first English dramatic genre to make regular use of musical parody, over a century before the ballad opera emerged. The music in these plays is a mixture of original compositions, popular existing songs, and their parodies, all of which help to show the city and its people in many moods. Songs selected for parody were drawn from the contents of published books of songs and ayres, from the popular ballad repertory, and from other plays. All songs were sung as unaccompanied monodies, regardless of the texture of the original. Musical parody in the city comedies can be divided into three distinct types, in which respectively (1) a song text is altered to fit the specific circumstances under which it is to be sung on stage; (2) the circumstances surrounding the origin of the song are imitated (often through the treatment of a broadside ballad); and (3) a song or musical scenario from another play is imitated as part of a reference to, or a parody of, that other drama.

Works: Thomas Dekker and John Webster: Northward Ho (358-59), George Chapman, Ben Johnson and John Marston: Eastward Ho (360-65).

Sources: Robert Jones: "My thought the other night," Second Booke of Songs and Ayres (358-59), "A Sorowfull Sonet made by M. George Mannington, at Cambridge Castle. To the tune of Labandala Shot," A Handefull of Pleasant Delites (360-61). (MP)

Index classifications: 1600s

Austin, William W. "Debussy, Wagner, and Some Others." 19th-Century Music 6 (Summer 1982): 82-91.

In Debussy and Wagner (1979), Robin Holloway seeks out those passages in Debussy which recall or which can be viewed as quotations of passages in Wagner. Some of the cases seem forced. Some compositions by Holloway himself include references to the music of Debussy and Wagner and others.

Works: Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande (83), "Golliwog's Cake-Walk," from Children's Corner (83), La Damoiselle élue (84), Le Martyre de Saint Sébastien (84), Jeux (84-85,88); Holloway: Clarissa (88-90), Scenes from Schumann: Seven Paraphrases for Orchestra (90), Romanza (90-91).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (83-84), Parsifal (84, 88-90); Debussy: Jeux (88-90); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C minor (90-91); Bach: D major fugue from the Well-Tempered Clavier, Book Two (91). (DCB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Babbitt, Milton. "Contextual Counterpoint." Chap. in Words about Music. Edited by Stephen Dembski and Joseph N. Straus. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987.

During a discussion of twelve-tone counterpoint, it is noted that the "Contrapunctus Secundus" from Luigi Dallapiccola's Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera is a gloss on the second movement of Webern's Piano Variations, Op. 27.

Works: Dallapiccola: "Contrapunctus Secundus," Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera (38-40).

Sources: Webern: Piano Variations, Op. 27 (33-40). (JPB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Badolato, James Vincent. "The Four Symphonies of Charles Ives: A Critical, Analytical Study of the Musical Style of Charles Ives." Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1978.

Index classifications: 1900s

Baillie, Hugh. "Squares." [Masses upon the squares, 1450-1600] Acta Musicologica 32 (January/March 1960): 178-93.

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Baker, David. "From The Composer's Perspective: Three Saxophone Concertos." International Jazz Archives Journal 1 (Fall 1993): 104-13.

In a discussion of three of his saxophone concertos, David Baker describes Ellingtones: A Fantasy for Saxophone and Orchestra as "an attempt to capture the spirit and feel of Duke Ellington." In the first movement, the piece features quotations of the A sections of Ellington's Caravan, Drop Me Off in Harlem, and Minnehaha, while fragments from other songs are used as linking materials. The second movement uses Ellington's All Too Soon not only as one of the themes but also as music heard underneath the saxophone solo. Movement III introduces Ellington's It Don't Mean a Thing If It Ain't Got That Swing in the introduction. Baker describes his treatment of the theme as "Morse-code-like." He then presents six variations on the borrowed tune's ground bass, which he refers to as a passacaglia.

Works: Baker: Ellingtones: A Fantasy for Saxophone and Orchestra.

Sources: Ellington: Caravan (106), Drop Me Off in Harlem (106), Minnehaha (106), All Too Soon (106), It Don't Mean a Thing If It Ain't Got That Swing (107). (EU)

Index classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Balfour, Arthur James. "The Works of G. F. Handel." Edinburgh Review or Critical Journal 165 (1887): 229-33.

Index classifications: 1700s

Ballantine, Christopher. "Charles Ives and the Meaning of Quotation in Music." The Musical Quarterly 65 (April 1979): 167-84.

Quoted musical fragments are as deep in symbolic content as Freudian symbols of "dream-text" fragments. A distinction is made between quoted musical matter that involves words and quoted musical matter that does not. Quotations of untexted music, such as "Westminster Chimes" in Ives's Second String Quartet and the opening motive of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in Ives's Second Piano Sonata ("Concord"), evoke philosophical associations but not literary meaning. But quoting texted music, such as the songs Ives uses in his Fourth Symphony and his song West London, provides a deeper meaning if the listener knows the original words. Different structures of meaning exist for various listeners in a work that utilizes borrowed materials: (1) abstract, which concerns purely musical relationships; (2) programmatic, eliciting extra-musical associations; and (3) musico-philosophical, uniting all levels of perception and transcending both abstract musical relationships and programmatic images. Ives's Central Park in the Dark and Washington's Birthday illustrate the way in which these levels work. Although in some cases Ives may have borrowed material for structural and thematic reasons, he was still undoubtedly exploiting the connotations of this borrowed material to incorporate different levels of meaning into his music.

Works: Ives: String Quartet No. 2 (171-72), Piano Sonata No. 2: Concord, Mass., 1840-60 (172), West London (173-74), Fourth Symphony (174-76).

Sources: "Westminster Chimes" (171-72); Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C minor (172); "There is a fountain" (173-74); Lowell Mason: "Bethany" (174-75), "Watchman" (175); Arthur Sullivan: "Proprior Deo" (175-76). (LAR/FT/PRZ)

Index classifications: 1900s

Baltzer, Rebecca A. "The Polyphonic Progeny of an Et gaudebit." In Hearing the Motet: Essays on the Motet of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, ed. Dolores Pesce, 17-27. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997.

A series of motets based on the clausula Et gaudebit no. 2 were held in unusual esteem during the thirteenth century, as evidenced by their placement in manuscripts and the treatment of their initials. The motets demonstrate virtually every motet type of the Ars Antiqua except for the two-voice French motet. All of the derived motets are listed in a table. Although the source clausula is from the Feast of the Ascension, the subsequent motets all focus on the Virgin Mary. The most frequently used motet text, O quam sancta, quam benigna, helped to confirm the role of the Virgin Mary in salvation, and its use was approved and encouraged by the clergy of Notre Dame.

Works: El mois d'avril qu'ivers va departant/O Maria, mater pia, vite via/O quam sancta, quam benigna/Et gaudebit (19, 21-23).

Sources: Clausula: Et gaudebit no. 2. (FC)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Banks, Paul. "The Early Social and Musical Environment of Gustav Mahler." Ph.D. diss., St. John's College, 1980.

See especially "Folk Music in Iglau," in which Mahler's allusions to folk tunes and folk types are discussed. (DCB)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Barber, Nicola J. "Brigg Fair: A Melody, Its Use and Abuse." The Grainger Journal 6 (August 1984): 3-20.

Both Percy Grainger and Frederick Delius set folksinger Joseph Taylor's rendition of the English folksong Brigg Fair. Brigg Fair is related to two other English folksongs, Maria Marten and Dives and Lazarus. Dives and Lazarus sometimes bears the title Come all you Faithful Christian Men, or in the Irish tradition, The Star in the Country. The Jolly Miller is a variant of the same melody. Grainger originally collected the folksong from Taylor in 1905 and made his setting, Brigg Fair, for tenor and mixed chorus in 1906. Delius's setting, in his Brigg Fair: An English Rhapsody, was inspired by Grainger's earlier setting and dates from 1907. Delius's setting borrows ideas from Grainger's but does not copy it stylistically. (JAJ)

Index classifications: 1900s

Barbera, C. André. "George Gershwin and Jazz." In The Gershwin Style, ed. Wayne Schneider, 175-206. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

In a study of George Gershwin's historical relationship with jazz, it is suggested that the composer's songs continue to be attractive to jazz musicians because of their rhythmic, melodic, harmonic, and formal characteristics. For instance, Gershwin tended to repeat notes in his melodies, allowing for the performer to embellish harmonically and rhythmically, as was exemplified by Billy Holiday's recording of Oh, Lady Be Good! In other instances, Gershwin songs are favored because their harmonies can be separated from their melodies, as in Nice Work If You Can Get It. Songs like Somebody Loves Me and The Man I Love contain repeated four-measure phrases, a characteristic musical succinctness that improvisers have long found inviting.

Works: George Gershwin: How Long Has This Been Going On? (188, 200), I Got Rhythm (188, 190, 201), They Can't Take That Away From Me (188-90, 200), A Foggy Day (188-90, 198, 201), Fascinating Rhythm (188,199), Oh, Lady Be Good! (189-90, 193-94, 196-97, 200), Nice Work If You Can Get It (190, 195-96, 198, 201), Bess, You Is My Woman Now (193, 200), The Main I Love (193-94, 197, 200-201), But Not For Me (193), Summertime (195,197, 201), Embraceable You (197, 199, 200-201), Somebody Loves Me (197-98, 200-201), Liza (198), Someone To Watch Over Me (198), Soon (198), Our Love is Here To Stay (198), 'S Wonderful (200). (EU)

Index classifications: 1900s, Popular, Jazz

Barbier, Jacques. "'Faulte d'argent:' Modèles polyphoniques et parodies au seizième siècle." Revue de musicologie 73, no. 2 (1987): 171-202.

Index classifications: 1500s

Barford, Philip T. "Mahler: A Thematic Archetype." The Music Review 21 ([November] 1960): 297-316.

A pentatonic archetypal theme is found in Mahler's music. The archetype may be considered as a private symbol, the "musical expression of some recurrent pattern of exprience." Ninety-two examples of the archetype, often in varied form, are presented. Buddhism and Hegel's concept of das unglückliche Bewusstsein may account for the ubiquity of the idea.

Works: Mahler: Songs of a Wayfarer (310), Das Lied von der Erde (311-12, 314-15), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (313).

Sources: Anonymous: La bergère que je sers (310), Frère Jacques (313). (DCB)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Baron, Carol K. "Varèse's Explication of Debussy's Syrinx in Density 21.5 and an Analysis of Varèse's Composition: A Secret Model Revealed." The Music Review 43 (May 1982): 121-34.

Varèse's composition Density 21.5 is in the truest sense musical parody, as it uses another work as its structural basis: Debussy's Syrinx. Structural similarities exist between the two pieces, such as the use of the two whole-tone scales as basic pitch collections. Though Varèse himself never explicitly confirmed this connection, Density may be read as a commentary upon Debussy's piece.

Works: Varèse: Density 21.5.

Sources: Debussy: Syrinx. (SR)

Index classifications: 1900s

Barry, Barbara R. "The Hidden Program in Mahler's Fifth Symphony." The Musical Quarterly 77 (Spring 1993): 47-66.

Following his health and conducting crises in 1900, Mahler turned to Beethoven's Fifth Symphony as a model for his own Symphony No. 5. The opening motive of the Beethoven symphony serves to unify the entire symphony, and the opening trumpet motto of Mahler's symphony serves a similar function. That motto is itself based on Beethoven's opening motive, and the key regions Mahler uses are the same as Beethoven (the second movement of both is in the submediant). The Trauermarsch of the second movement is a varied form of the first movement's, which is similar to the way the Scherzo in the Beethoven is based on an altered form of the symphony's opening motive. The moments in Mahler's work when earlier material returns are based on Beethoven's practice.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 5 in C sharp Minor (51-66), Symphony No. 2 in C Minor (52-53), Symphony No. 1 in D Major (58).

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in C Minor (51-55, 57, 61-2); Mahler: Kindertotenlieder (58, 60), Des Knaben Wunderhorn (59), Rückertlieder (59-60); Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (60); Mahler: Symphony No. 4 in G Major (65). (MEG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Bartlet, Mary Elizabeth Caroline. "A Musician's view of the French Baroque after the Advent of Gluck: Grétry's Les trois âges de l'opéra and its Context." In Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. John Hajdu Heyer, 291-318. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Toward the end of the 1770s, partially as a consequence of the controversy between the Ramistes and Gluckistes (the supporters of Rameau and Gluck respectively), the Académie Royale de Musique was in a state of crisis, which led to the appointment of a new director, Anne Pierre Jacques Devismes du Valgay. To mediate between the two parties, he not only scheduled pieces that would appeal to all tastes, but, to promote this program, also commissioned a new opera from André Ernest Modeste Grétry, a composer not directly involved in the controversy. The result was Les trois âges de l'opéra (libretto by Saint-Alphonse Devismes), a prologue opéra including extensive borrowings from Lully, Rameau and Gluck. In this opera, each of these composers is praised for his operatic contributions, Lully's "mastery of lyric declamation," Rameau's dances, and Gluck's recitative style and wide range of passions, and Grétry carefully underlines their strengths with appropriate quotations. The borrowed passages are basically unchanged; Grétry only changed the instrumentation in some places or interpolated a few extra measures to meet the requirements of the text. To correct the ahistorical view of the Ramistes and Gluckistes, Grétry related the borrowings to each other, showing the indebtedness of Rameau and Gluck to their predecessor, for example by quoting a "dramatically static chorus" from Gluck's Ifigénie, a chorus that according to some critics owed much to the French model. The libretto does much to give the impression that Gluck continued the Lully-Rameau lyric tradition. (AG)

Index classifications: 1700s

Bartlett, Andrew. "Airshafts, Loudspeakers, and the Hip Hop Sample: Contexts and African American Musical Aesthetics." African American Review 28 (1994): 639-52.

Rap music, and in particular the practice of sampling in rap music, can be grounded within a larger context of African-American interest in imitation. Early examples of imitation in slave culture suggest interests similar to sampling, namely the desire to reconfigure aspects of dominant culture into strictly African-American forms. Sampling can be seen as a way to archive interactive historical material. Rap artists use new language to describe their use of samples, and acknowledge their sources to avoid legal trouble. EMPD, for example, thanks their sources and introduces their raps by indicating which pre-existing compositions the new rap embodies. (FMM)

Index classifications: 1900s, Popular

Bartók, Béla. "The Relation of Folk-Song to the Development of the Art Music of Our Time." The Sackbut (June 1921): 5-11.

Index classifications: 1900s

Bartók, Béla. "The Influence of Peasant Music on Modern Music." In Béla Bartók Essays, ed. Benjamin Suchoff, 340-44. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976.

Folk music has been used as source material for composers of many eras. Composers of the Viennese classic period were influence by and used folk music in their compositions; for example, Beethoven's Symphony No. 6 uses a Yugoslavian dance melody for the primary theme. Other composers who used folk material include Chopin, Smetana, Dvorák, and Mussorgsky. In the twentieth century, composers began to collect or study folk music in an attempt to integrate that music into their style. Three possibilities exist for the use of folk materials in Western art music. A composer can simply compose an accompaniment for an existing folk melody, a newly composed melody can take on folk characteristics, or folk music can be integrated into the style of a composer to such an extent that neither folk melodies or imitations of folk melodies are used, but the composer's works are imbued with the style of peasant music.

Works: Beethoven: Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Pastoral (340); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsodies (340); Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps (343); Kodály: Psalmus Hungaricus (344). (CMH)

Index classifications: 1900s

Baselt, Bernd. "Zum Parodieverfahren in Händels frühen Opern." Händel-Jahrbuch 21 (1975): 19-39.

Index classifications: 1700s

Baselt, Bernd. "Muffat and Handel: A Two-way Exchange." The Musical Times 120 (November 1979): 904-7.

In 1736, Gottlieb Muffat copied out, by hand, two published works by Handel: the eight Suites de pièces (1720) and the Six Fugues or Voluntarys for the Organ or Harpsichord (1735). Muffat did this to illustrate his method of fingering and to specify a precise system of ornaments. Quite likely, Muffat had received these published editions directly from London, and in return dedicated his Componimenti musicali to Handel. The latter, in turn, borrowed from Muffat's work.

Works: Handel: Twelve Grand Concertos, Op. 6 (904), Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (904), Organ Concerto in A major, Op. 7 no. 2 (907).

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (904, 906-7), Ricercare (907). (FC)

Index classifications: 1700s

Baskerville, David. "Jazz Influence on Art Music to Mid-Century." Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1965.

Index classifications: 1900s

Batchelor, Stephen. "Benjamin Britten and His Works for the Guitar." The Journal of the British Music Society 18 (1996): 35-49.

Benjamin Britten's 1963 Nocturnal after John Dowland for solo guitar is a set of variations on Elizabethan composer John Dowland's 1597 lute song Come Heavy Sleep. Unlike most theme and variation forms, however, the theme appears at the end, rather than the beginning of the composition. The eight variations, based on melodic fragments of Dowland's song, depict various stages of insomnia, and have the character of fleeting, nightmarish episodes. The interaction of notes, chords, and keys a semitone apart is a salient feature of the variations. The tension generated by this dissonant harmonic relationship dissipates when Dowland's song is quoted at the end of the composition.

Works: Britten: Nocturnal after John Dowland (35-40, 46-48).

Sources: Dowland: Come Heavy Sleep (46-48). (STG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Batta, András. "A Nietzsche Symbol in the Music of Richard Strauss and Bela Bartók." The New Hungarian Quarterly 23 (Spring 1982): 202-7.

The enthusiasm the young Bartók displayed for the music of Richard Strauss is attested by the extent to which Bartók emulated the orchestral decorativeness as well as the déjà vu effect of Strauss. A deeper relationship also exists, demonstrated by Bartók's incorporation of harmonic and structural elements of Strauss's Also Sprach Zarathustra into his early operatic works, not so much for the surface effect as to underscore the philosophical kinship both composers shared with Nietzsche.

Works: Bartók: 14 Bagatelles (203), Suite No. 1 (204-5), Bluebeard's Castle (206), The Wooden Prince (207). (AW)

Index classifications: 1900s

Bazelon, Irwin. Knowing the Score: Notes on Film Music. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1975.

Film score composers are often required to compose forty minutes worth of music in several weeks time, necessitating the use of previously invented music or the liberal borrowing of others' previously written music. The fragmented form of film music often discourages developed themes on large compositional canvases, but calls for the use of "mere snatches of music." Using the widely understood extramusical associations of previously written music, the first film score composers often borrowed easily recognizable music, conveying meaning quickly to early moviegoers. The "Bridal Chorus" from Wagner's Lohengrin was used to seal holy matrimony, Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata for moonlit nights and calm waters, and Rossini's William Tell Overture to underscore Western cowboy heroics, creating a language of musical cliché for generations of film score composers to come. With all art, both serious and popular, becoming an amusement commodity for leisure-time activity, the film industry has absorbed the materials of traditional art in order to imbue its product with all the outer trappings of genuine culture.

Works: Stanley Kubrick: compilation score to 2001: A Space Odyssey; Wendy (Walter) Carlos: score to A Clockwork Orange (35); Leonard Rosenman: score to Fantastic Voyage (39); Ezra Laderman: score to The Eleanor Roosevelt Story (38); Elmer Bernstein: score to The Magnificent Seven (75); Lalo Schifrin: score to Cool Hand Luke (75); Toru Takemitsu: score to Woman in the Dunes (78); Hanns Eisler: score to Hangmen Also Die (84). (KEW)

Index classifications: 1900s, Film

Beadle, Jeremy. Will Pop Eat Itself? Pop Music in the Soundbite Era. London: Faber and Faber, 1993.

Index classifications: 1900s, Popular

Beardsley, Theodore. "The Spanish Musical Sources of Bizet's Carmen." Inter-American Music Review 10, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 1989): 143-46.

Before composing Carmen, Bizet had already shown strong interest in Spanish music. His adaptation of Spanish music in his opera Don Quichotte and symphonic ode Vasco de Gama is evident. The experience of a school-day friendship with Pablo Sarasate provided him an easy channel to Spanish sources. In Carmen, Bizet borrowed genuine Spanish folksongs, local rhythms, and tunes composed by Spanish composers Sebastián Yradier and Manuel Garcia. The pieces of Spanish origin in Carmen include the famous "Habañera"; Carmen's aria "Séguidille, séguidille, séguidilla," and "Choeur des gamins" in Act I; Carmen's aria "Chanson bohème," and "Toreador Song" in Act II; and both of the preludes to Act III and IV. The most interesting borrowing is Carmen's leitmotif, the Fate theme, which is used repeatedly throughout the opera in two patterns, one for Carmen, and the other for Don José. This theme is derived from an Andalusian Saeta (flamenco music). Bizet's familiarity with authentic Spanish music is underestimated, and the extent of Spanish influence on the score of Carmen is more complex than usually recognized.

Works: Bizet: Carmen. (TC)

Index classifications: 1800s

Beaumont, Antony. Review of Albrecht Riethmüller's Ferruccio Busonis Poetik. Music and Letters 70 (1989): 571-74.

Riethmüller aims to outline Busoni thought patterns by analyzing two works, the Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a, completed in 1898, and the Improvisation for Two Pianos on Bach's Chorale-Song 'Wie wohl ist mir,' composed in 1916. The Improvisation reworks material from the Second Violin Sonata. The structure of the variations in the third movement of the violin sonata is modeled on Beethoven's Piano Sonata, Op.109. Riethmüller misses the fact that the opening notes of the Bach chorale are identical to the bass line of Beethoven's variation theme, and hence serve in Busoni's sonata as a good example of Busoni's idea of "the Oneness of Music." Riethmüller points out the "latent characteristic of quotation in Busoni's music," and discovers the borrowing of sketches for an unfinished piano work in the chorale variations and the borrowing from Bach's Trauerode, BWV 198 in the opening of Busoni's third movement. Riethmüller analyzes the Improvisation in terms of borrowing from the violin sonata, calling it obscurer, more aggressive, and more enigmatic. But the relationship of the two works is more like "that of a healthy mother to a very sickly child," since the average listener does not know its antecedent in detail and since some passages are incoherent and illogical.

Works: Busoni: Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a, (571-73), Improvisation for Two Pianos on Bach's Chorale-Song 'Wie wohl ist mir' (573).

Sources: J.S. Bach: "Wie wohl ist mir" from Notenbuch für Anna Magdalena Bach (571), Trauerode, BWV 198 (572), Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Op. 109 (571), Busoni: Second Violin Sonata, Op. 36a (573). (DB)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Bekker, Paul. Gustav Mahlers Sinfonien. Berlin: Schuster & Loeffer, 1921.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Benham, Hugh. "The Formal Design and Construction of Taverner's Works." Musica disciplina 26 (1972): 189-209.

Although in his formal procedures Taverner is considered to follow in the footsteps of his English predecessors to a large degree, certain features are original, including parody technique. All the passages in Taverner's Mass Mater Christi are derived from "vitalis cibus," a phrase from the parent antiphon. The bulk of Taverner's setting is in exact parody, entailing only minimal changes such as melodic decoration and minor rhythmic variants; his approach almost nears contrafactum. Yet Mater Christi also provides some examples of less strict modeling and imitation of the antiphon phrase, exhibiting Taverner's awareness of the possibilities of parody technique.

Works: Taverner: Western Wynde (191-93), Mater Christi (201-8), Small Devotion (208).

Sources: "Western Wynde" (191-92), Mater Christi, antiphon (201-8), Christe Jesu, antiphon (208-9). (DBO)

Index classifications: 1500s

Benkö, András. "Motivul B-A-C-H in muzica secolului XX." Lucrari de muzicologie 4 (1968): 137-56.

Index classifications: 1900s

Bennett, Joseph. "Handel and Muffat." The Musical Times 36 (March 1895): 149-52.

Handel's uses of themes from Muffat's Componimenti musicali fall into three categories: (1) the themes are taken as "mere suggestions" by Handel; (2) the ideas are adopted with little or any alteration; (3) the themes are freely treated to the point that they take on an independent life of their own. Examples of each type of usage may be found in Handel's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day and elsewhere. Unlike Giovanni Bononcini, who was discredited for claiming another's music as his own, Handel's musical borrowings were accepted because the materials he appropriated were so well known that there was no pretense to originality.

Works: Handel: Ode on St. Cecilia's Day (149-51), Joshua (151), Samson (151).

Sources: Muffat: Componimenti musicali (149-51). (FC)

Index classifications: 1700s

Bent, Margaret. "Fauvel and Marigny: Which Came First?" In Fauvel Studies: Allegory, Chronicle, Music, and Image in Paris, Bibliothéque Nationale de France, MS francais 146, ed. Margaret Bent and Andrew Wathey, 35-52. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.

Determining the purpose and chronology of the three Marigny motets in relation to the Roman de Fauvel is difficult at best. Examination of the historical role in connection with these motets can make both the chronology and music clearer. Most important historically is their connection with and references to the downfall of Enguerran de Marigny. The evidence suggests that these motets existed before the Roman de Fauvel and were modernized with Fauvel material in order to create specifically tailored political messages.

Works: Vitry: Garrit gallus/In nova/Neuma (35-37), Aman novi/Heu Fortuna/Heu me (36, 38), Tribum que non abborruit/Quoniam secta latronum/Merito (36).

Sources: Floret/Florens (39); Heu Fortuna from Roman de Fauvel (43). (RCD)

Index classifications: 1300s

Bentham, Jaap van. "Fortuna in Focus." Tijdschrift van de Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis 30 (1980): 1-50.

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Berger, Arthur V. "Aspects of Aaron Copland's Music." Tempo, no. 10 (March 1945): 2-5.

Aaron Copland alters material borrowed from American folksong to make it individual and to evoke folksong as a genre. In adapting the source tunes, Copland changes their character (Lincoln Portrait), shifts rhythmic emphasis (Billy the Kid, Rodeo), and fragments motives (El salón México). The compositional technique is comparable to that in the more abstract works; for example, Danzon Cubano and the Violin Sonata employ similar rhythmic patterns. Works by Copland that draw upon folksong portray not only the open space of the prairies, but also the isolation of New York City, Copland's own environment.

Works: Copland: Piano Sonata (2), Danzon Cubano (2-3), Violin Sonata (2-3), Lincoln Portrait (3), Billy the Kid (3), El salón México (4), Rodeo (4). (EB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Berger, Arthur. Aaron Copland. New York: Oxford University Press, 1953.

Within a life and works study, musical borrowings from American folk music are considered. A number of works after 1934 borrow from folk sources, including El salón México, Billy the Kid, Rodeo, and Lincoln Portrait. Copland transformed and developed his borrowings through melodic and rhythmic displacement, character changes, and motivic fragmentation. As a result of folk influence, Copland composed more melodic music that relies upon diatonic harmonies. The use of folksong assisted Copland in his search for a simpler style accessible to a wider audience. Copland's borrowings were also the result of his Americanism and his desire to bring the American popular-music heritage into the concert hall.

Works: Copland: Vitebsk (52), Lincoln Portrait (60-61), Rodeo (63-64), El Salón México (63-65), Billy the Kid (65n, 91), Appalachian Spring (65n), Third Symphony (72-80), The Heiress (film score) (89), Las Agachadas (91); Rimsky-Korsakoff: Russian Easter Overture (73); Stravinsky: Petrouchka (73, 91), Pulcinella (91).

Sources: Springfield Mountain (60-61); El Mosca (63); If He'd Be a Buckaroo (63-64); Sis Joe (64); El Palo Verde (65); The Gift to Be Simple (Simple Gifts) (65n); Goodbye Old Paint (65n, 91); Copland: Fanfare for the Common Man (75); Giovanni Martini: Plaisirs d'amour (89). (EB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Berlin, Edward A. King of Ragtime: Scott Joplin and His Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Within a study of Scott Joplin and his compositions, several cases of borrowing or modeling are explored. The most imitated Joplin piece was Maple Leaf Rag, his biggest hit. Also imitated to some extent were Elite Syncopations, Palm Leaf Rag, and Original Rags. Many imitations were little more than plagiarisms. Joplin's imitations of himself, however, were brilliant. Gladiolous Rag, Rose Leaf Rag, and Cascades preserve what Joplin apparently felt were attractive structural elements of the Maple Leaf Rag. Also noteworthy is the possibility of Irving Berlin's Alexander's Ragtime Band borrowing from Joplin's Treemonisha.

Works: Settle: X.L. Rag (51, 68); Etter: Whoa! Maud (52, 69); Butler: The Tantalizer (67); Donaldson: Latonia Rag (68); Nonnahs: That's Goin' Some (68); Tournade: Easy Money (113); Scott: A Summer Breeze (113); Morton: Fuzzy Wuzzy Rag (113-14); Verge: Who You Heiffer (131); Joplin: Cascades (136-38), Gladiolous Rag (169-72), Rose Leaf Rag (169-72); Berlin: Alexander's Ragtime Band (210-12).

Sources: Joplin: Original Rags (50-51), Maple Leaf Rag (67-69, 136, 152, 169-70, 179, 182-83), The Entertainer (108-10), A Breeze From Alabama (110-12), Elite Syncopations (113-14), Palm Leaf Rag (130-32), Treemonisha (210-12). (EU)

Index classifications: 1900s, Popular

Berman, Laurence David. "Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun and Jeux: Debussy's Summer Rites." 19th-Century Music 3 (March 1980): 225-38.

The plots of both works are similar so that Debussy's method of translating poetry into music can be compared. The retrospective character of the prelude is apparent in the evocation of (1) Tristan, (2) Chopin's Nocturne No. 8 in Db major, (3) Saint-Saëns's Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix, and (4) the love music of Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet.

Works: Debussy: Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (227-32), Jeux (232-38).

Sources: Wagner: Tristan und Isolde (232), Chopin: Nocturne No. 8 in D flat (232), Saint-Saëns: Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix (232), Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet (232). (DCB)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Bernard, Jonathan W. "Tonal Traditions in Art Music Since 1960." In The Cambridge History of American Music, ed. David Nicholls, 535-66. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

A group of composers, known as "Converts," began as "post-tonalists" and experimentalists and then moved toward more tonal idioms in the 1960s and 1970s. One of the first composers to leave the "post-tonal" world was George Rochberg, who began using collage and other borrowing techniques in his compositions of the mid-1960s. He began quoting his contemporaries and slowly moved to allusion of past composers and eras with his Third String Quartet. Another composer to use collage and allusion was David Del Tredici, who used various traditional and popular tunes to support the texts of Lewis Carroll. William Bolcom, John Harbison, Chick Corea, Keith Jarrett, and Anthony Davis began mixing art music and popular music through quotation, allusion, and homage to create a tonal idiom unlike those found in the music of Rochberg and Del Tredici. In the 1980s and 1990s, young composers also looked back to the Romantic period, but they did not use quotation or other actual borrowing techniques to the extent of the Converts. The young Romantic composers usually composed original music that only alluded slightly to the former composers of the 1800s.

Works: Rochberg: Music for the Magic Theater (546), String Quartet No. 3 (546-47); Del Tredici: Pop-Pourri (547), Vintage Alice (548); Zwilich: Concerto Grosso (561); Larson: Symphony: Water Music (563).

Sources: Mozart: Divertimento K. 287 (546); Bach: Es ist genug (547); Traditional: Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star (548), God Save the Queen (548); Handel: Violin Sonata in D (561), Water Music (563). (MDA)

Index classifications: 1900s

Bernstein, Lawrence F. "The Cantus-Firmus Chansons of Tylman Susato." Journal of the American Musicological Society 22 (Summer 1969): 197-240.

Tylman Susato's Premier and Tiers livres à 2 ou à 3 parties include approximately fifty chansons that derive their material from preexistent sources. The models for Susato's cantus firmus chansons come from Flemish, Italian, and Parisian prints; from compositions for two voices or four; from both polyphonic and homophonic compositions; and from composers as divergent as Josquin des Prez and Claudin de Sermisy as well as Susato himself. Susato modifies the cantus firmus to suit the needs of his new composition. While retaining most cadential schemes from his models, Susato feels free to change some cadences to fit the logic of his new piece. He borrows from the lower voices of his models as well, using parody to highlight tension or stability in the new piece. Unlike Gervaise [see Bernstein, "Claude Gervaise as Chanson Composer"], who demonstrates little regard for the formal implications of borrowed material, Susato takes care to emphasize the structural nature of his models.

Works: Susato: Content désir (218), Long temps y a (219), Je prens en gré (220), Mon pauvre cueur (221), Grace vertu (222), Puisque j'ay perdu mes amours (229-30). (JFA)

Index classifications: 1500s

Bernstein, Lawrence F. "Cantus firmus in the French Chanson for Two and Three Voices, 1500-1550." Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1969.

Index classifications: 1500s

Bernstein, Lawrence F. "Claude Gervaise as Chanson Composer." Journal of the American Musicological Society 18 (Fall 1965): 359-81.

Claude Gervaise wrote three- and four-part chansons. Those in four parts are freely composed in a progressive style while the three-part chansons use borrowed material in the tradition of earlier pedagogical tricinia. These traditional pieces are composed in one of three ways: 1. use of a cantus firmus plus completely new material; 2. combination of cantus firmus with parodied material from the model with little or no concern for originality; 3. combination of cantus firmus and parodied material with significant original contributions. Gervaise's three-part compositions fall in this last category. Gervaise may have learned these particular borrowing techniques from Thilman Susato's Premier livre of 1544. Gervaise wrote these chansons for the inexperienced singer yet retained his artistic integrity in the process. Like no other composer of sixteenth-century chansons, Gervaise borrows his material according to a consistent set of compositional principles.

Works: Gervaise: Aultant que moy (366), Mon Pencement (367), M'amye est tant honneste (368), Au temps heureux (369), D'Amour me plains (369), Si l'on doibt prendre (370), Las! je sçay bien (370). (JFA)

Index classifications: 1500s

Berrett, Joshua. "Louis Armstrong and Opera." The Musical Quarterly 76 (Summer 1992): 216-41.

Louis Armstrong's prolifically wide-ranging tastes regarding art and music find their outlet in his incorporation of operatic fragments in his improvised solos. Armstrong was inclined to imitate operatic gestures such as recitative style, as exemplified by his solo in Blue Again. Armstrong also played operatic cadenza-like passages in certain breaks, such as in I Can't Give You Anything But Love (234). In other instances, Armstrong quoted operatic themes, such as Verdi's Rigoletto quartet and "Vesti la giubba" from Pagliacci. By quoting Pagliacci and Rigoletto, he was showing that his artistic influences were not limited to the pantheon of New Orleans cornet virtuosos of the early twentieth century. Armstrong did not distinguish between "high" and "low" art; it was all jazz to him, and his quotations of well-known music are a demonstration of this belief.

Works: Louis Armstrong: Cornet/Trumpet solos on Araby (220), Blue Again (222, 235), New Orleans Stomp (223), Dinah (223-24, 234, 236), Tiger Rag (225), New Tiger Rag (225); Armstrong and Bechet: Jazz improvisations on Kansas City Man Blues (228), Texas Moaner Blues (229); Louis Armstrong: Cornet/Trumpet solos on Potato Head Blues (229); Armstrong and Bechet: Jazz improvisations on Cake Walking Babies from Home (230, 234); Louis Armstrong: Cornet/Trumpet solos on West End Blues (231-36); Armstrong and Bechet: Jazz improvisations on Mandy Make Up Your Mind (232), Early Every Morn (233); Louis Armstrong: Cornet/Trumpet solos on Beau Koo Jack (235), Once in a While (235), Can't Give You Anything But Love (235).

Sources: Verdi: Rigoletto (218, 222-23, 231-32); Gounod: Faust (220); Ponchielli: Dance of the Hours (221), Gershwin: Lady Be Good! (223); Sindig: Rustle of Spring (225); Leoncavallo: Pagliacci (225); Porter Steele: High Society (227, 232); Bizet: Carmen (231); Eva Dell'Acqua: Villanelle (232-33); Suppé: Poet and Peasant Overture (233). (EU/MEG)

Index classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Bezuidenhout, Morné P. "Metamorphosis in 'Metamorphoses': A Set Theory approach to the Harmonic Continuo in Lutoslawski's 'Funeral Music.'" South African Journal of Musicology 4 (1984): 17-21.

Index classifications: 1900s

Bianconi, Lorenzo. "'Ah dolente partita': Espressione ed artificio." Studi musicali 3 (1974): 105-30.

Index classifications: 1600s

Birchler, David Carl. "Nature and Autobiography in the Music of Gustav Mahler." Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1991.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Biron, Ferand. Le chant gregorien dans l'enseignement et les oeuvres musicales de Vincent d'Indy. Ottawa: Les Editions de l'Université d'Ottawa, 1941.

Vincent d'Indy was heavily influenced by Gregorian plainsong, and this influence was clearly reflected in his musical philosophies, teaching, and compositions. D'Indy's music quotes, paraphrases, or alludes to the style of Gregorian chant in several ways. These are organized according to compositional genre. The use of Gregorian chant fits into d'Indy's musical aesthetic in several ways. (LAR)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Bittel, Hermann. "Der Cantus firmus in der zeitgenössischen geistlichen Chormusik." Ph.D. diss., Munich, 1950.

Index classifications: 1900s

Bjork, David A. "The Kyrie Trope." Journal of the American Musicological Society 33 (Spring 1980): 1-41.

The Kyrie trope is a Kyrie with independent text and melody inserted between phrases, in contrast with a texted Kyrie, which is a lengthy chant with a syllabic text. The most common forms of Kyrie trope contained one, three, or eight phrases. The texted Kyrie seems to be the older form and is more common in western Europe. It is possible that the Kyrie and trope were composed together, as may also be the case for the sequence, due to the presence of a more purely melismatic style. The longer Kyrie trope is more common east of the Rhine, uses shorter chant melodies, and has more formal and structural similarities to Kyrie melodies in general. Complete musical independence is the only universal characteristic of all Kyrie tropes. Tables list fourty-four Kyrie tropes and their sixty-one manuscript sources.

Works: Eia chorus clamans (12, 16, 20-22); Rex regnum domine (14, 23-26, 37); Omnipotens genitor lumenque (10, 13, 15-16, 17, 26-31); Deus solus et immensus (12, 31-36). (FC)

Index classifications: Monophony to 1300

Blanchard, Gérard. Images de la musique de cinéma. Paris: Collection Médiathèque, 1984.

Within the context of an examination into film music as a component equally crucial to the film as the images on the screen, musical borrowing is discussed with special attention paid to the musical cliché. The use and creation of musical clichés in film music derives first and foremost from the recontextualization of "classical" music in film. The musical cliché is analogous to the literary. In some cases, the classifications and associations assigned to the musical cues of the silent films derive from already established semiotic codes, but in most cases film composers were creating and re-creating cultural and psychological points of reference in the ears and minds of the film spectators. In the process of recognizing the real social importance of these musical clichés, their respective archetypes are uncovered. (DBO)

Index classifications: 1900s, Film

Blankenburg, Walter. "Das Parodieverfahren im Weihnachtsoratorium Johann Sebastian Bachs." Musik und Kirche 32 (November/December 1962): 245-54. Reprint in Johann Sebastian Bach, ed. Walter Blankenburg, 493-506. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1970.

That Bach's Christmas Oratorio consists in part of parodied movements from secular cantatas has been problematic for the work's reception. However, Bach's parody technique can be justified on economic, stylistic, and aesthetic grounds. An examination of the Christmas Oratorio demonstrates that Bach carefully reworked his models to harmonize with the new text and the new occasion. Three main aspects of Bach's parody technique may be discerned in the Christmas Oratorio: first, movements are transposed to conform to the overall tonal structure of the work; second, movements may be reorchestrated in order to better correspond with the affect of the new text; and third, the re-texting of the music is carried out in a skillful fashion that is rhetorically appropriate in the new setting. The Christmas Oratorio is, therefore, a highly individual work which owes its success to Bach's careful consideration of the consequences of parody. In the new work the parodied movements are integrated structurally as well as meaningfully into the new setting.

Works: Bach: Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248. (AJF)

Index classifications: 1700s

Blaustein, Susan. "Uses of Sonata Form in Schubert's Op. 29/I and Schoenberg's Op. 30/I." M.A. thesis, Yale University, 1980.

There is evidence to suggest that Schoenberg modeled the first movement of his Third String Quartet (1927) on the first movement of Schubert's String Quartet in A minor, Op. 29 (1824). Schoenberg's incessant eighth-note ostinato in the second violin and viola at the opening of the movement shows a clear allegiance to the perpetual eighth notes at the opening of the Schubert. But what is especially noteworthy is Schoenberg's unique manipulation and recasting of the traditional elements of sonata form within the new environment of the twelve-tone system. (MSS)

Index classifications: 1900s

Blay, Philippe, and Hervé Lacombe. "A l'ombre de Massenet, Proust et Loti: Le manuscrit autographe de L'Ile du rêve de Reynaldo Hahn." Revue de musicologie 79, no. 1 (1993): 83-108.

The recently revealed manuscript for L'Ile du rêve contains Hahn's marginal comments written in the style of Massenet. An examination of these markings displays Hahn's infatuation and dependence on not only Massenet, but also contemporary writers Loti and Proust. Regarding his teacher Massenet, Hahn wrote that he was dependent on him for compositional technique and melodic ideas. (EH)

Index classifications: 1900s

Blezzard, Judith H. Borrowings in English Church Music, 1550-1950. London: Stainer & Bell, 1990.

Index classifications: 1500s, 1600s, 1700s, 1800s, 1900s

Block, Adrienne Fried. "Vol. I: Pierre Sergent's Les Grans Noelz, ca. 1537, and the Early French Parody Noel: History and Analysis. Vol. II: An Edition of Les Grans Noelz with Critical Commentary." Ph.D. diss., City University of New York, 1979.

Index classifications: 1500s

Block, Adrienne Fried. "Timbre, texte et air: comment le noëlparodie peut aider à l'étude de la chanson du XVIe siecle." Revue de musicologie 69 (1983): 21-54.

The conversion of secular musical works into religious pieces by the substitution of a new text was a common technique in the sixteenth century. The noël-parody is one example, where a text describing the nativity would replace a secular text, thus creating a "new" piece without changing the music. The model for the noël-parody, the form into which the new text was introduced, was the chanson rustique, a form of popular origins that was part of an oral tradition. As many of the texts of the noël-parodies are preserved in printed collections, they can provide information about their models that is not available to us by any other means, such as the strophic design of a chanson rustique and its approximate date of circulation.

Works: [CHANSONS] Bulkyn: Or sus, or sus, bovier (32); Compère: Je suys amie du fourrier (37); Godart: Mariez moy, mon pere (41); Josquin: Si j'avois Marion (41); Rogier: Noble fleur excellente (41); Anonymous: En m'esbatant/Gracieuse plaisant mousniere/Gente fleur de noblesse; La Chanson de la grue (33); Maistre Jehan de Pont Allez, or allez (36); Mariez moy, mon pere (40); Mon cotillonnet (35); Monseigner le grant maistre (39, 41); Noble cueur d'excellence (40); Si j'eusse Marion (41). [NOEL-PARODIES] Autre noël sure la chanson de cotillon (35); De mon triste desplaisir (29); Or chantons de cueur isnel, o nouel (37); Or sus, or sus, bouvier, Dieu te coint bonne estraine (33); Quant l'empereur des romains (33). (NKT)

Index classifications: 1500s

Block, Adrienne Fried. "Dvorak's Long American Reach." In Dvorak in America, 1892-1895, ed. John C. Tibbetts, 157-81. Portland, Ore: Amadeus, 1993.

Dvorák had a wide-ranging impact on the creation of an American nationalism in music. His ideas about a national American music fall into three different categories, each dealing with a style of folk music. Dvorák felt that American composers should look toward these three folk styles as foundations for their compositions, following the model of his own New World Symphony from 1893. The first category of national American music is Native American music. Composers continued to follow Dvorák's ideas by collecting the music, using previous collections made by ethnologists, and alluding to the culture of the Native American in symphonic and chamber music and opera. The second folk style Dvorák discussed is African-American music. Composers broke into two categories of African-American music, yet they all still were following many of the ideals set forth in the writings of Dvorák. Many composers looked towards the traditions of the Creole people in the South, while others focused mainly on spirituals and other slave songs for the inspiration of various compositions. Finally, composers began looking toward Anglo-American folk traditions, which was the final type of folk music briefly discussed by Dvorák as a basis for a national music. Dvorák was a significant influence on the creation of American music from his entrance into the country until mid-twentieth century.

Works: Works: Dvorák: Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (158-59); MacDowell: Indian Suite (163); Loomis: Lyrics of the Red Men (163-64); Nevin: Poia (164); Farwell: The Hako (164); Griffes: Two Sketches Based on Indian Themes (164-65); Beach: String Quartet, Op. 89 (165-66); van Brockhoven: Suite Creole (169); Gilbert: Dance in Place Congo (169); Beach: Cabildo (169); Shelly: Carnival Overture (170); Schoenefeld: Suite, Op. 15 (170); Goldmark: Negro Rhapsody (171); Gilbert: Negro Episode (171); Mason: String Quartet in G Minor on Negro Themes (172); Cook: Uncle Tom's Cabin (173); Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (174). (MDA)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Block, Adrienne Fried. "Amy Beach's Music on Native American Themes." American Music 8 (Summer 1900): 141-66.

Amy Beach composed five works using Native American music as themes. Her usage reflected an interest, shared by MacDowell, Dvorak, Farwell and others, in developing an American musical idiom. In her Indianist works, Beach integrated source tunes through dissonance, chromaticism, drones, and other devices, facilitating her development of a unique musical language.

Works: Beach: Eskimos, Op. 64 (148-50), An Indian Lullaby, Op. 57, No. 3 (149), From Blackbird Hills: An Omaha Tribal Dance, Op. 83 (150-52), Trio, Op. 150 (152-54), String Quartet, Op. 89 (154-63).

Sources: Native American tunes transcribed by Boas in The Central Eskimo (144, 149-50, 152, 156, 160); Beach: The Returning Hunter, Op. 64, No. 2 (152-53). (EU)

Index classifications: 1900s

Block, Geoffrey. "Ives and the 'Sounds That Beethoven Didn't Have.'" In Charles Ives and the Classical Tradition, ed. Geoffrey Block and J. Peter Burkholder, 34-50. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

Index classifications: 1900s

Block, Geoffrey. Ives: Concord Sonata. Cambridge Music Handbooks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Index classifications: 1900s

Block, Geoffrey. "Remembrance of Dissonances Past: The Two Published Editions of Ives's Concord Sonata." In Ives Studies, ed. Philip Lambert, 27-50. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Index classifications: 1900s

Block, Steven. "George Rochberg: Progressive or Master Forger?" Perspectives of New Music 21 (1982-1983): 407-9.

Rochberg is an imitator who does not place his personal stamp on the compositions he quotes. Rochberg's style of quotation presents a shallow picture of the composer he tries to portray without adding anything of his own. (SB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Bloom, Peter Anthony. "'Orpheus' Lyre Resurrected: A Tableau Musical by Berlioz." The Musical Quarterly 61 (April 1975): 189-211.

Berlioz re-used the final adagio of his 1827 entry for the Prix de Rome, the cantata La Mort d'Orphée, in at least five other pieces, each in a slightly altered manner. The unique orchestration of the passage shows Berlioz's expert ability in the combination of instrumental colors for dramatic effect: here, the orchestral suggestion of the sounds of the aeolian harp and its accompanying sense of melancholy. An examination of the first and subsequent versions reveals that one of the more enigmatic features of the work, the inclusion of a dominant 7th in the final chord, is the result of Berlioz's conscious attempt to incorporate musical "fragments" or "shadows" which leave a sense of longing and lack of resolution at the end of the work.

Works: Berlioz: Le Retour à la vie (198-204), Lélio ou Le Retour à la vie (201-4).

Sources: Berlioz: La Mort d'Orphée (esp. 194-98). (WPS)

Index classifications: 1800s

Bloxam, M. Jennifer. "In Praise of Spurious Saints: The Missae Floruit Egregiis by Pipelare and La Rue." Journal of the American Musicological Society 44 (1991): 163-220.

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Bloxam, M. Jennifer. "Plainsong and Polyphony for the Blessed Virgin: Notes on Two Masses by Jacob Obrecht." Journal of Musicology 12 (1994): 51-75.

Index classifications: 1400s

Bloxam, M. Jennifer. "Sacred Polyphony and Local Traditions of Liturgy and Plainsong: Reflections on Music by Jacob Obrecht." In Plainsong in the Age of Polyphony, ed. Thomas Forrest Kelly, 140-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Index classifications: 1500s

Blume, Friedrich. "Bach in the Romantic Era." Translated by Piero Weiss. The Musical Quarterly 50 (July 1964): 290-306.

The revival of Bach's music in the Romantic era is of overwhelming historical significance. The stature of his music continues to grow in the twentieth century. Mention is made of two works based upon the theme B-A-C-H: Schumann's six fugues on B-A-C-H (1845) and Liszt's prelude and fugue on the name of B-A-C-H (1860). Liszt also made an organ arrangement of sections of Bach's Cantata No. 21 in 1855. The more general influence of Bach is evident in Mendelssohn's St. Paul (1836) and Elijah (1846) and in William Sterndale Bennett's oratorio The Woman of Samaria (1867). (DCB)

Index classifications: 1800s

Blume, Friedrich. "Johann Sebastian Bachs weltliche Kantaten und Parodien." In Syntagma Musicologicum II: Gesammelte Reden und Schriften 1962-1972, ed. Anna Amalie Abert and Martin Ruhnke, 190-204. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1973.

For various reasons Bach's output of secular cantatas is not very well known. This is the case despite the very ambiguous demarcation between Bach's sacred and secular music as well as the evident passion and skill he exhibits in many of the secular compositions. As the secular cantatas provided Bach with a wealth of musical material to draw upon, the use of parody technique is a central concern to this repertory. Although the argument that parody was a direct result of Bach's need for economy is certainly relevant, there indeed exist cases where the transformation of an existing work into a new one is so advanced that one must consider other factors. The oratorio-type works that Bach composed later in his Leipzig years, for example, rely to a large extent on very skillful parodies of movements from pre-Leipzig secular cantatas. It is likely that as his career progressed, Bach made greater use of parody procedure as the fund of existing source material grew. An understanding of the relationship between original and parody must consider the possibility that Bach's music was so rich that it was readily adaptable to widely divergent texts.

Works: Bach: Weichet nur, betrübte Schatten, BWV 202 (191); Mer hahn en neue Oberkeet, BWV 212 (193); Erfreut euch, ihr Herzen, BWV 66 (194-5); Mass in B Minor, BWV 232 (198-9, 201); Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt, BWV 68 (200); Easter Oratorio, BWV 249 (201-2); St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244 (202-3); Christmas Oratorio, BWV 248 (203-4). (AJF)

Index classifications: 1700s

Bolley, Richard. "Ancient and Modern 3." Early Music 8, no. 4 (October 1980): 3-5.

While at university in Manchester, Peter Maxwell Davies immersed himself in early music. From the Liber Usualis, the volumes in the Tudor Church Music series, and performances at Manchester Cathedral, Davies heard and studied this repertoire. Upon purchasing the volume of John Dunstable's works in the Musica Britannica collection, Davies began to use Dunstable's music in his own compositions as an alternative to the serial procedures currently in vogue. He says that he borrowed the idea of plainsong transformation from Dunstable, as well as the manner in which he structured rhythm. Davies was also concerned with aesthetic expression and the process in which a composition would speak to the listener. In order to reach the height of expression, a composition must also be in correct proportion, an idea Davies shares with Dunstable. However, the proportional structure need not be heard to communicate to the listener. Davies also uses the vocabulary of early music when he speaks of a cantus or tenor working its way through his compositions. For Davies, this is no mere intellectual exercise, but a compositional process which he believes allows him to communicate to a wide audience.

Works: Davies: Prolation (3). (CMH)

Index classifications: 1900s

Bonds, Mark Evan. "Sinfonia anti-eroica: Berlioz's Harold en Italie and the Anxiety of Beethoven's Influence." Journal of Musicology 10 (Fall 1992): 417-63.

Critics have often noted the structural similarities between the opening of Berlioz's Harold en Italie and that of Beethoven's Ninth. At the opening of the finale, both works reprise then reject themes from earlier movements. Unlike other composers who use this device (Brahms, Bruckner, Mahler, Franck), Berlioz does not conclude with a triumphant chorale-like theme. In fact, the viola protagonist remains passive to events throughout, much in the manner of Byron's Childe Harold. Yet Berlioz is in fact confronting the legacy of the "terrifying giant" Beethoven, following Harold Blooms's notions of the "anxiety of influence." Although other of Berlioz's works (Symphonie fantastique, Lélio, Roméo et Juliette, Symphonie funèbre et triomphale) bear the influence of Beethoven, Harold en Italie shows Berlioz's strongest confrontation with Beethoven's legacy.

Works: Berlioz: Harold en Italie.

Sources: Beethoven: Symphony No. 9. (FC)

Index classifications: 1800s

Bonds, Mark Evan. "The Sincerest Form of Flattery?: Mozart's 'Haydn' Quartets and the Question of Influence." Studi musicali 22 (1993): 365-409.

The influence of Haydn's quartets Opp. 20 and 33 on Mozart's "Haydn" quartets goes beyond imitation. When Mozart invokes a specific Haydn quartet he uses overt parallels to invite a comparison with Haydn, yet usually changes and transforms the model's form. An element ostensibly borrowed from Haydn is for Mozart a mere point of departure, the striking transformations of which reveal Mozart's rivalry with his model. Mozart's veiled intention, homage combined with confrontation, is also traceable in the rhetoric of his notorious letter of dedication to Haydn.

Works: Mozart: String Quartet in D Minor, K.421 (371-77), String Quartet in G Major, K. 387 (374-75), String Quartet in C Major, K.465 (380-92), String Quartet in A Major, K.464 (392-405).

Sources: Haydn: String Quartet in G Major, Op. 33, No. 5 (371-77), String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 20, No. 5 (374-75), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 3 (380-92), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 20, No. 2 (392-405). (TB)

Index classifications: 1700s

Bónis, Ferenc. "Bartók and Wagner." New Hungarian Quarterly 10 (Summer 1969): 201-9. Reprinted in Bartók Studies, comp. and ed. Todd Crow, 84-92. Detroit: Information Coordinators, 1976. German translation in Österreichische Musikzeitschrift 36 (March 1981): 134-47.

Bartók's compositions contain numerous "hidden autobiographical elements," quotations from his own and from other composers' works. These can often be revealed only through careful analysis. In Bluebeard's Castle, Bartók quotes an ostinato motive from Bach's St. Matthew Passion and also uses the motive B-A-C-H. The Wooden Prince begins with an evocation of nature modeled upon that which begins Wagner's Das Rheingold except that in Bartók the first seven harmonics are combined (as opposed to the first five in the Wagner) to create the "Bartók chord." Other examples noted include reference to Ravel's Scarbo in Bartók's Allegro barbaro and the reformulation of the slow movement of Beethoven's String Quartet in A Minor, Op.132, in the second movement of Bartók's Third Piano Concerto. (DCB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Bónis, Ferenc. "Quotations in Bartók's Music: A Contribution to Bartók's Psychology of Composition." Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 5 (1963): 355-82.

Bartók's quotations have never been completely examined. His quotations are rarely made for "effect," but are instead hidden away and are of a personal significance. Many examples are noted with reference to folk melodies and to the works of Haydn, Liszt, Wagner, Bach, Beethoven, Debussy, Ravel, Kodaly, and Stravinsky. Bartók also quotes music from his own earlier works. The quotations discussed are divided into four groups: (1) the reference to the music of other composers, often inspired by similar compositional situations, (2) programmatic and autobiographical quotations, (3) quotations of a humorous or ironic nature, and (4) "shopwork" quotations, themes which recur in several works and are molded to "final perfection." Bartók is viewed as an innovator who at the same time is a great synthesizer of disparate influences.

Works: Bartók: Kossuth (357), Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 1 (357), Scherzo for Piano and Orchestra (357), First Suite for Orchestra, Op. 3 (357), Second Suite for Orchestra, Op. 4 (357), Violin Concerto No. 1 (359), Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (361), Bluebeard's Castle (365), Piano Concerto No. 3 (369), Second String Quartet (371), Allegro barbaro (372), Contrasts (372), Violin Concerto No. 2 (373), Concerto for Orchestra (377), Cipósütés (378). (DCB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Bonner, Dyl. "Ready-made Music." Music and Musicians 23 (August 1975): 28-30.

An aesthetic of musical borrowing is emerging where the borrowed material functions as the central idea and inspiration of a work. The works of Bernd Aloys Zimmerman and Peter Maxwell Davies receive particular attention in a discussion that mentions numerous examples of works incorporating musical borrowings. Bonner theorizes that the technique has become particularly important in music of this century due to the growing lack of communication between composers and modern audiences. Borrowed material in new compositions provides a basis of familiarity, thereby serving as a path to comprehension of the new work.

Works: William Albright: Tic (30), Caroms (30); Alban Berg: Wozzeck (30), Violin Concerto (30); Luciano Berio: Sinfonia (30); William Bolcom: Whisper Moons (30), Sessions IV (30); Gavin Bryars: Jesus's Blood (30); John Cage: HPSCHD (30); Peter Maxwell Davies: Alma Redemptoris Mater (29), Frammenti di Leopardi (29), St. Thomas Wake (29), Eight Songs for a Mad King (29), I Love Dr. Herberden Best (29), Comfort ye (29); Brian Dennis: Programmes (30); Hans Werner Henze: Second Violin Concerto (30); Alec Hill: Mayerl Order (29); Christopher Hobbs: Remorseless Lamb (29); Gustav Holst: Hymn of Jesus (28); Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: "Supper scene" from Don Giovanni (28); Robert Schumann: Fantasy in C Major, Op. 17 (28); Dimitri Shostakovich: Symphony No. 15 (30); Karlheinz Stockhausen: Hymnen (30), Opus 170 (28), Prozession (30); Igor Stravinsky: L'Histoire du Soldat (30); John Tavener: Coplas (30), Celtic Requiem (30); Michael Tippett: Third Symphony (30); William Walton: Façade (28); Bernd Aloys Zimmerman: Die Soldaten (28), Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu (28), Monologue (28). (NKT)

Index classifications: 1900s

Börner, Hermann. "Original oder originell? Bachbearbeitungen von Komponisten des 20. Jahrhunderts." Musik und Gesellschaft 29 (1979): 79-84.

Index classifications: 1900s

Borren, Charles van den. "L'apport italien dans un manuscrit musical du XVe siècle perdu et partiellement retrouvé." Rivista Musicale Italiana 31 (December 1924): 527-33.

Index classifications: 1400s

Borren, Charles van den. "De quelques aspects de la parodie musicale." Bulletin de la Classe des Beaux-Arts 20 (1938): 146-63.

Index classifications: General

Borren, Charles van den. "Le manuscrit musical M.222 C.22 de la Bibliothèque de Strasbourg (XVe siècle) brûlé en 1870, et reconstitué d'après une partielle édition d'Edmond De Coussemaker." Annales de l'Académie royale d'archeologie de Belgique 71 (1923): 343-74; 72 (1924): 272-303; 73 (1925): 128-96; 74 (1926): 71-152. Partial reprint in Le manuscrit musicale M.222 C.22 de la Bibliothèque de Strasbourg. Anvers: Imprimérie E. Secelle, 1924.

Index classifications: 1400s

Borrowdale, Robert J. "The Musices liber primus of Diego Ortiz, Spanish Musician." Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California, 1952.

Index classifications: 1500s

Bowen, Zack Rhollie. "Music and Leopold Bloom." Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1964.

Index classifications:

Boyd, George R. "The Development of Paraphrase Technique in the Fifteenth Century." Indiana Theory Review 9 (1988): 23-62.

Development of paraphrase technique in the fifteenth century may be traced through four stages: (1) the cantus firmus migrates successively through several voices; (2) the cantus firmus is subjected to melodic variation but remains in one voice; (3) introductory duos and trios anticipate the arrival of the cantus firmus (which remains in only one voice part); (4) points of imitation based on the cantus firmus open major sections of a piece, which continue in a non-imitative manner. Imitation as a structural device occurred first in secular works before moving to the sacred realm. The syntactic-imitative style reached its fruition in Italy, where humanism and its emphasis on the imitatio were helping to move music from the field of science to the field of humanities.

Works: Bittering: Nesciens mater (27-28); Pycard: Sanctus (28-30); Guillaume Dufay: Alma redemptoris mater (31-32), Vostre bruit (34-35), Anima mea liquefacta est (36, 38-40); Gilles Binchois (36): Ave regina coelorum (36-37); Johannes Regis: O admirabile commercium (40-42); Johannes Ockeghem: Missa Au travail suis (42-43); Jacob Obrecht: Missa Je ne demande (43-44); Salve regina (43-44); Anonymous: Kyrie fons bonitatis (44-47); Johannes Martini: Missa ferialis (48-52), Missa dominicalis (52-57) Josquin des Prez: Missa de Beata Virgine (57-59).

Sources: Antiphon: Nesciens mater (27-28); Sanctus with Marian trope [Sarum] (28-30); Chant: Alma redemptoris mater (31-32), Ave regina coelorum (36-37), Anima mea liquefacta est (36, 38-40), Kyrie fons bonitatis (44-47), Mass XVIII for the Ferias of Advent and Lent (48-52), Mass XI (52-56), Mass IX (57-58), Mass IV (57-58); Introit: Puer natus (41-42); Barbingant: Au travail suis (42-43); Loyset Compère: Au travail suis (42-43). (FC)

Index classifications: 1400s

Boyd, Malcolm. "Britten, Verdi and the Requiem." Tempo, no. 86 (1968): 2-6.

There are similarities between the requiems of Britten (War Requiem) and Verdi. These primarily concern not melodic resemblances but similarities in texture, speed, rhythm, tonality, and the deployment of vocal and instrumental resources. The Verdi-like passages serve as terms of reference for the listener, helping to form a familiar background against which to contrast the tritone relationships in the music and the disruptive elements of the Owen verses. However, in emulating another composer, Britten tried to purge his musical style of certain traits (including some Verdian ones), which resulted sometimes in completely different forms of expression. (AG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Boyd, Malcolm. "Dies Irae: Some Recent Manifestations." Music and Letters 49 (October 1968): 347-56.

Amplification of Gregory 1953. Quotation of the Dies Irae has been overdone, but some modern works have enriched the symbolism grown around the ancient plainchant melody. Russia especially has most closely associated this melody with the death of a revolutionary hero. Khatchaturian, in his Second Symphony, uses it in the general expresion of mourning of the war 1914-1918. Tchaikovsky's Suite No. 3 lacks a program to explain the chant's presence. In Respighi's Impressioni Brasiliane, the chant portrays the physical characteristics and deadly qualities of snakes. Dallapiccola's Canti di Prigionia uses the chant structurally in an outcry against tyranny and oppression. Pierres and Stevenson use it for similar effect. Some borderline cases are Rachmaninoff's Isle of the Dead and Mahler's Second Symphony. A list (pp. 355-56) of some secular references to the Dies Irae is provided.

Works: Bantock: Macbeth (355); Berlioz: Symphonie fantastique (347, 348, 355); Dallapiccola: Canti di Prigionia (351, 352, 355); Peter Maxwell Davies: St. Michael (355); Khatchaturian: Symphony No. 2 (348, 350, 355); Kraft: Fantasia Dies Irae for Organ (355); Liszt: Totentanz (351, 355); Mahler: Das klagende Lied (355), Symphony No. 2 (354, 355); Medtner: Piano Quintet (356); Miaskovsky: Symphony No. 6 (348-350, 356); Mussorgsky: Songs and Dances of Death, #3 (356); Pierres: A Litany for the Day of Human Rights (352, 356); Pizetti: Requiem (348); Rachmaninoff: The Isle of the Dead (353, 354, 356), The Bells (353, 356), Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini (354, 356), Symphonic Dances (354, 356); Respighi: Impressioni brasiliane (351, 356); Saint-Saëns: Danse Macabre (356); Schelling: Victory Ball (356); Sorabji: Variation upon Dies Irae (356), Sequentia cyclica (356); Stevenson: Passacaglia on DSCH (352, 356); Stravinsky: Three Pieces for String Quartet (356); Tchaikovsky: In Dark Hell (356), Suite No. 3 (356); Vaughan-Williams: Five Tudor Portraits (356); Bergman film: The Seventh Seal (356); Fernandel film: The Sheep has Five Legs (356). (JP)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Brainard, Paul. "Bach's Parody Procedure and the St. Matthew Passion." Journal of the American Musicological Society 22 (Summer 1969): 241-60.

The question of priority in Bach's composition of the St. Matthew Passion and the Funeral Music for Prince Leopold remains open to debate. An examination of Bach's use of parody technique in works where one is known to have been a model for the other yields a picture of the types of adjustments Bach was likely to make. Brainard finds that only two factors will cause Bach to make significant changes in the music when setting the second text: the demands of proper declamation and the portrayal of the text with traditional rhetorical figures. Brainard concludes that the St. Matthew Passion was composed first, because the changes that would have been required in that work if the Funeral Music was the earlier composition are uncharacteristic of Bach's use of parody technique in similar situations.

Works: Johann Sebastian Bach: Cantata BWV 30 (246, 249), Cantata BWV 68 (248, 251), Cantata BWV 173 (245), Cantata BWV 197 (249), Cantata BWV 210 (247), Cantata BWV 248 (246-49). (NKT)

Index classifications: 1700s

Brancaleone, Francis. "Edward MacDowell and Indian Motives." American Music 7 (Winter 1989): 359-81.

MacDowell made frequent use of motives associated with music of the American Indians, although he disavowed the notion that this practice amounted to the creation of an American national music. His principal source of Indian melodies was Theodore Baker's German dissertation Über die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden. MacDowell seems to have been particularly drawn to a "dirge" motive derived from a "Kiowa song of a mother to her absent son" appearing in the Baker, for the motive appears in several works. Compared to similar efforts by his contemporaries, MacDowell finds a method of incorporating Indian motives in his music that is not contextually incongruous and that avoids overwhelming the melodies through over-harmonization.

Works: MacDowell: Sonata tragica, Op. 45, Suite No. 2, "Indian," Op. 48, Woodland Sketches, Op. 51, Sonata No. 3, "Norse," Op. 57, Sea Pieces, Op. 55, Fireside Tales, Op. 61, New England Idyls, Op. 62. (DL)

Index classifications: 1800s

Braun, Hartmut. "Ein Zitat Beziehungen zwischen Chopin und Brahms." Die Musikforschung 25 (July/September 1972): 317-21.

In mm. 63-64 of his Intermezzo, Op. 116, No. 2, Brahms quotes and at the same time distills mm. 33-40 from Chopin's Mazurka, Op. 7, No. 2. Although both harmony and melody correspond only partially, this is a clear case of quotation, in which the two measures point to the complete model: Brahms used the motivic material in question at formally similar places as Chopin and also the key schemes correspond. (AG)

Index classifications: 1800s

Braun, Joachim. "The Double Meaning of Jewish Elements in Dimitri Shostakovich's Music." The Musical Quarterly 71 ([Winter] 1985): 68-80.

The identification of Jewish elements in Shostakovich's music is preceded by a definition of what these elements may be considered as being. The understanding of the meaning of these elements in Shostakovich's music depends upon the understanding of the position of Jewish culture in the Soviet Union. Twelve works which include Jewish elements are listed in Table I. Jewish elements often appear in works that employ the self-identification motive of D-S-C-H [D-Eb-C-B] which corresponds to the D. SCHostakovitch of the composer's name in German usage. The use of Jewish elements may be interpreted as concealed dissidence. (DCB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Braun, Werner. "S. Scheidts Bearbeitungen alter Motetten." Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 19-20 (August 1963): 56-74.

Index classifications: 1600s

Braun, Werner. "Zur Parodie im 17. Jahrhundert." In Bericht über den Internationalen Musikwissenschaftlichen Kongress Kassel 1962, ed. Georg Reichert and Martin Just, 154-55. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1963.

The sacred vocal parodies of the seventeenth century are not characteristic of the artistic spirit of the age, as evidenced by the few compositions of composers such as Schütz and Monteverdi based on other composers. Despite this, it is possible to speak of a history of parody in the seventeenth century. The seventeenth-century view of parody, as set forth in Quitschreiber's treatise De parodia of 1611, departed from that of the Renaissance in two main ways. First and most important was a new recognition of the concept of artistic ownership. Second was the regard of parody as a useful pedagogical and stylistic tool in composition ("Stileinübung"). (RVT)

Index classifications: 1600s

Braun, Werner. "Die evangelische Kontrafaktur." Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie 11 (1966): 89-113.

Contrafacta are songs of which the secular text has been replaced by a sacred one. While the melodies should at least closely relate, the textual connections may vary considerably. In some cases, the author of the sacred text translated the original text nearly literally with the exception of a few words providing the sacred meaning. In other cases, he preserved only the affections and/or the rhyme scheme of the secular poem. After 1600, the contrafactum could include changes of measure and melodic as well as harmonic progressions in order to achieve a better correspondence of text and music.

Works: Works: Gramann-Poliander: Nun lob, mein Seel, den Herren (92); Luther: Nun freut euch, lieben Christen gmein (92, 109); anonymous contrafacta: Freut euch, freut euch in dieser Zeit (92), Von Gott will ich nicht lassen (97); Speiser: Ach, wie ein süsser Name ist der Name Jesu Christ (106), Amor, amor hab ich zu Gott allein (106), Frisch her, ihr lieben Christen, zum Streit so lasst uns rüsten (106), Ich bin frölich im Herren, das kann mir niemand wehren (106), O du mein Herre Jesu Christ, der du für mich gestorben bist (106), O Tod mit deiner G'stalte, wie bist du mir gar so grimm (106), O Herr, ich schreie zu dir mit ganz herzlicher Begier (106), Der jüngst' Tag ist nit ferre (106), O Gott, mein Herre, Mein' Glauben mehre (107); Regnart: Venus, du und dein Kind (106); Lindemann: In dir ist Freude In allem Leide (107); Rist: O Göttinne zart (107-8, 112-13); Neukrantz: Eile, Gott, mich zu erretten (107-8, 112-13); Praetorius/Schultze: Das ist mir lieb, mein Gott und Herr (108-9). (AG)

Index classifications: 1500s, 1600s

Braun, William Ray. "Three Uses of Pre-Existent Music in the Twentieth Century." Ph.D. diss., University of Missouri-Kansas City, 1974.

The techniques of quodlibet, quotation, and parody are discussed for a selection of fifteen works written between 1908 and 1970. The reasons for borrowing are considered, along with the categories of renewal, homage, humor, and satire.

Works: Foss: Baroque Variations; Berio: Sinfonia; Rochberg: Nach Bach; Stravinsky: The Fairy's Kiss; Hindemith: Symphonic Metamorphosis, Mathis der Maler; Debussy: "Golliwog's Cakewalk" from Children's Corner; Bartók: Concerto for Orchestra; Berg: Violin Concerto; Crumb: Black Angels. (MM)

Index classifications: 1900s

Breig, Werner. "Heinrich Schütz' Parodiemotette Jesu dulcissime." In Convivium Musicorum: Festschrift Wolfgang Boetticher zum sechzigsten Geburtstag am 19. August 1974, ed. Heinrich Hüschen and Dietz-Rüdiger Moser, 13-24. Berlin: Verlag Merseberger, 1974.

The authorship of the parody motet O Jesu dulcissime, based on Giovanni Gabrieli's motet O Jesu Christe, has long been doubtful. The following features of the parody, however, suggest that Heinrich Schütz is very likely its author. (1) O Jesu dulcissime, which includes contrafactum, reworking of motives, and entirely new passages, is qualitatively equal to Gabrieli's model; (2) the composer often intensified the expression; and (3) the parody shows in several places the character of a study, which is typical for Schütz's concern with Italian music.

Works: Schütz: Der Engel sprach zu den Hirten, SWV 395 (24), Güldne Haare, gleich Aurore, SWV 470 (24), O Jesu süss, SWV 406 (24), Es steh' Gott auf, SWV 356 (24), Psalm No. 11, SWV 34 (24), Ach Herr, du Schöpfer aller Ding, SWV 450 (24). (AG)

Index classifications: 1600s

Breig, Werner. "Zum Parodieverfahren bei Heinrich Schütz." Musica 26 (January/February 1972): 17-20.

Schütz rarely parodied his own works, first because he seldom reset a standard text, as did sixteenth-century composers with the Ordinarium Missae, and second because parody would only have loosened the close relation of music and text. In a few instances, however, Schütz reused either his own pieces or those by modern Italian composers. In the former case, he usually only translated the text in order to perform the composition under different circumstances, whereas the reworking of the Italian compositions served to deepen his skills in new styles, such as the madrigal, polychoral music, the stile concitato, thoroughbass, and ostinato.

Works: Schütz: "Gloria patri" for the 111th psalm from Psalmen Davids, SWV 34, Es steh' Gott auf, SWV 356, from Symphoniae sacrae, part two (20), Der Engel sprach zu den Hirten, SWV 395, from Geistliche Chormusik (20), O Jesu süss, wer dein gedenkt, SWV 406, from Symphoniae sacrae, part three (20), Ach Herr, du Schöpfer aller Ding, SWV 450 (20), Güldne Haare, gleich Aurore, SWV 440 (20). (AG)

Index classifications: 1600s

Brendel, Alfred. Nachdenken über Musik. Munich: R. Piper, 1977.

[See p. 98.]

Index classifications:

Brett, Philip. "Homage to Taverner in Byrd's Masses." Early Music 9 (April 1981): 169-76.

In his Four-Part Mass, William Byrd pays homage to John Taverner by using the basic structure of Taverner's "Meane" Mass. Structural connections between the Masses include similar voice distribution, section breaks and cadential points in corresponding passages. However, Byrd eschews his model's thematic links, except for the use of a head motive to unify only the Gloria and Agnus Dei. Byrd's Sanctus movement does not feature any thematic link to the other Mass movements; however he reveals homage to Taverner overtly at the beginning of this movement. Here Byrd transforms the "Meane" Mass's head motive using melodic expansion and contrapuntal techniques, and thus refers directly to the model's thematic material for the first time. From this study, it is likely that the Sanctus movements of Byrd's other two masses share similar features with Taverner's "Meane" Mass.

Works: William Byrd: Four-Part Mass (170-74), Five-Part Mass (174), Three-Part Mass (174-75).

Sources: John Taverner: "Meane" Mass (170-76). (VLM)

Index classifications: 1500s

Breuer, János. "Bach és Bartók." Muzsika (Budapest) 18 (September 1975): 20-24. Translated as "Bach und Bartók." In Bericht über die Wissenschaftliche Konferenz zum III. Internationalen Bach-Fest der DDR, Leipzig 18./19. September 1975, ed. Werner Felix, Winfried Hoffmann, and Armin Schneiderheinze, 307-13. Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1977.

Index classifications: 1900s

Brincker, Jens. "Et liedcitat i Gustav Mahlers V. symfoni." In Musikvidenskabelige Essays udgivet auf Musikvidenskabeligt Institut ved Kobenhavns Universitet, ed. Niels Krabbe, 9-15. Copenhagen: Musikvidenskabeligt Institut, Kobenhavns Universitet, 1974.

In the last few years, interest has increased in the connections between Mahler's song and symphonies. While there is general agreement on these connnections in the vocal symphonies II, III, IV, and VIII, and the instrumental symphonies I and IX, there is less certainty for the middle symphonies V, VI, and VII. The Kindertotenlieder and the Wunderhornlieder have been linked by Theodor Adorno to symphonies VI and VII, respectively, while Monika Tibbe has determined that one motive in the first movement of the fifth symphony is quoted from the first song of the Kindertotenlieder. Brincker shows that this motive, the actual statement of which appears near the end of the movement, appears in varied form throughout the movement, a result of Mahler's own variation technique.

Works: Mahler: Symphony No. 5 (9-15), Symphony No. 1 (9-10), Symphony No. 2 (9-10), Symphony No. 3 (9-10), Symphony No. 4 (9-10), Symphony No. 6 (9-10), Symphony No. 7 (9-10), Symphony No. 8 (9-10), Symphony No. 9 (9-10). (NS)

Index classifications: 1900s

Brincker, Jens. "Et liedelement i Gustav Mahlers V. symfoni." In Elleve Kortere musikhistoriske og musikteoretiske bidrag tilegnet Dr. phil. Povl Hamburger i anledning af hans halvfjerds ars fodselsdag tirsdag den 22. juni 1971 af kollegaer og tidlgere elever, ed. [??], 37-45. Copenhagen: Musikvidenskabeligt Institut, Kobenhavns Universitet, 1971.

Index classifications: 1900s

Brindle, Reginald Smith. "The Search Outwards--The Orient, Jazz, Archaisms." In The New Music: The Avant-garde since 1945, 133-45. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.

Some modern composers have felt limited by the mainstream avant-garde movement and have turned elsewhere for inspiration. This includes uses of music of the East, a tradition which goes back to Debussy and consists mostly of stylistic modeling. It also includes the use of jazz, which brings a popular style to art music. Avant-garde composers have also looked to music of the past, mostly to medieval music. While many use general stylistic references, a few have used direct borrowings. For example, Peter Maxwell Davies's Missa super L'Homme Armé offers his criticism on the material he borrows, demonstrating that the mass has degenerated in modern society; hence, he interrupts the sacred reference with the foxtrot. Donatoni reduces borrowed material to small sound bites, offering no respect for the composer's ego or personality. These and other examples demonstrate that the search for outside inspiration has advantages as well as disadvantages; some composers seem to seek mere novelty or shock value, but fresh developments in the field have been interesting in any case.

Works: Berio: Sinfonia (141-2); Davies: Missa super L'Homme Armé (142); Donatoni: Etwas ruhiger im Ausdruck (143-4). (JS)

Index classifications: 1900s

Brinkmann, Reinhold, ed. Die Neue Musik und die Tradition. Mainz, 1978.

Index classifications: 1900s

Briscoe, James Robert. "Debussy d'après Debussy: The Further Resonance of Two Early Melodies." 19th-Century Music 5 (Fall 1981): 110-16.

A knowledge of Debussy's earliest works is important to the understanding of the development of his personal style. One can compare the first conception of an idea to its further realization in a later work. Two examples are considered: (1) Fête galante (a mélodie of 1882) and its later revision as the menuet of the Petite Suite (1889); and (2) La Fille aux cheveux de lin (a mélodie of ca. 1882-84) and the prelude for piano (Book I, 1910) of the same title. These works demonstrate that Debussy's personal style is already implicit in his earliest works. (DCB)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Brodbeck, David. "Primo Schubert, Secundo Schumann: Brahms's Four-hand Waltzes, Op. 39." Journal of Musicology 7 (Winter 1989): 58-80.

Brahms's models for Opus 39 came from Schubert's Twelve Ländler (Op. 171) and Schumann's Davidsbündlertanze. Brahms acknowledged the debt to Schubert, as seen in examples of harmonic similarities and the introduction of counterpoint into simple dance forms. The bipartite division and "double ending" of Opus 39 seems to have been inspired by Schumann's Davidsbündlertanze, which was comprised of two sets of dances ending with two conclusive pieces. (EH)

Index classifications: 1800s

Brodhead, Thomas M. "Ives's Celestial Railroad and His Fourth Symphony." American Music 12 (Winter 1994): 389-424.

About half the music of "Hawthorne," the second movement of Ives's Second Piano Sonata, Concord, Mass., 1840-60, also appears in The Celestial Railroad, a "Phantasy" for solo piano, and virtually all of the latter appears in the second movement of his Fourth Symphony. In Memos, Ives wrote that the sonata was written first, then the symphony movement, and then The Celestial Railroad. An examination of his manuscripts suggests a different order, in which The Celestial Railroad was adapted from "Hawthorne" and then was used in turn as the basis for the symphony movement. All three works have a common root in the abandoned "Hawthorne" Piano Concerto, conceived between 1910 and 1916 as part of Ives's planned "Men of Literature" series. The "Hawthorne" Concerto was reworked as the sonata movement. In the early 1920s, Ives was working on a "Concord" suite for piano, derived from the sonata. Four Transcriptions from "Emerson" recasts material from the first movement, and The Celestial Railroad, using material from "Hawthorne," was intended to be the second section of the suite. Clippings from the published score of the sonata appear in the manuscript of The Celestial Railroad. Ives worked on it in stages, affixing new patches with revisions onto the manuscript. The final stages correspond to material as presented in the Fourth Symphony movement. Thus Ives worked out the material in detail for The Celestial Railroad, then orchestrated the work for his Fourth Symphony. Because The Celestial Railroad predates the second movement of the Fourth Symphony, the program of the piano work--a short story by Hawthorne--may be used to interpret the narrative of the symphonic movement. (EB)

Index classifications: 1900s

Brook, Barry S. "Stravinsky's Pulcinella: The 'Pergolesi' Sources." In Musiques, Signes, Images: Liber Amicorum François Lesure, ed. Joel-Marie Fauquet, 41-66. Geneva: Minkoff, 1988.

The body of materials upon which Stravinsky based Pulcinella are organizes and clarified. First, Stravinsky's remarks on the process of composing Pulcinella are proven unreliable. Second, a table shows the Pulcinella source materials housed at the Paul Sacher Stiftung in Basel. Elements once falsely attributed to Pergolesi are movements from ten trio sonatas by Domenico Gallo, an air and a gavotte for keyboard by Carlo Monza, and a concerto attributed to Count Unico Wilhelm von Wassenaer. Verifiable Pergolesi sources are a movement from a cello sonata, eleven pieces from his operas Il flaminio and Lo Frate 'nnamorato, and one from his cantata Luce degli occhi miei. As a postscript, the discovery of an intermediary score of Pulcinella in the Stefan Zweig Collection of the British Library shows something of Stravinsky's compositional process and connects the sketches held at the Paul Sacher Stiftung with the fair copy piano score, also in the British Library.

Works: Stravinsky: Pulcinella.

Sources: Pergolesi: Twelve Sonatas for Two Violins and Bass (46, 49-50, 54-55, 62-63); Domenico Gallo: Trio No. 7 (49, 50-51, 62-64); Alessandro Parisotti: Arie Antiche, "Se tu m'ami" (46, 62-63); Carlo Monza: Pièces Modernes pour le clavecin, Suite in E Major, Air (51-52, 62, 64); Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer: Concerti Armonici, no. 2 (52-53, 62-63); Carlo Monza: Pièces Modernes pour le clavecin, Suite in D Major, Gavotte (53-54, 62, 64); Pergolesi: Il Flaminio, "Mentre l'erbetta pasce l'agnella" (55, 62-63), "Con queste paroline" (55, 62-63), Luce degli occhi miei, "Contento forse vivere" (55, 62-63), Lo Frate 'nnamorato, "Pupilette, fiammette d'amore" (55, 62, 64), "Chi disse c'à la femmena" (55, 62-63), "Gnora credeteme ch'accosi è" (55, 62-63), Nina's aria from Act III, scene 3, introduction (56, 62-63), "Sento dire non c'è pace" (56, 62-63); Pergolesi: Il Flaminio, "Benedetto maledetto" (62-63). (DL)

Index classifications: 1900s

Brooks, William. "Pocahontas: Her Life and Times." American Music 2 (Winter 1984): 19-48.

Index classifications: 1800s

Brooks, William. "Unity and Diversity in Charles Ives's Fourth Symphony." Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research 10 (1974): 5-49.

Index classifications: 1900s

Brown, A. Peter. "The Creation and The Seasons: Some Allusions, Quotations, and Models from Handel to Mendelssohn." Current Musicology, no. 51 (1993): 26-58.

Haydn's late oratorios The Creation and The Seasons were performed all over Europe soon after their premieres and became immensely popular throughout the nineteenth century and beyond. Haydn borrowed from some previous traditions and predecessors, and the two oratorios were in turn sources of allusions, quotations, and models to many composers in the German-speaking lands, such as Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, and Mendelssohn, providing many musical, textual, and rhetorical relationships. Haydn borrowed from specific works of Handel, Mozart, and himself, as well as from the general stylistic conventions of opera seria and the Singspiel. The famous representation of chaos leading to the appearance of light employed in The Creation was particularly influential for the next generation of composers, with Beethoven prominent among them. Further source materials were provided by the pastoral setting of both oratorios, spinning choruses, and general representations of nature such as storms and sunrises.

Works: Haydn: The Creation (28-30, 35-39), The Seasons (31-39); Beethoven: The Creatures of Prometheus (40), Fourth Symphony (41), Fifth Symphony (41, 50), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3 (42); King Stephan, Op 117 (42); Leonore Overture No. 3, Op 72 (44), Sixth Symphony (44-47, 50), Second Symphony (48-49), Fidelio (50), Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 (50), Ninth Symphony (50-51); Schubert: "Tragic" Symphony, No. 4, D. 417 (52), "Great" C-Major Symphony, D. 944 (50); Weber: Der Freischütz (52); Mendelssohn: Overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream (53). (LFL)

Index classifications: 1700s, 1800s

Brown, A. Peter. "Haydn and Mozart's 1773 Stay in Vienna: Weeding a Musicological Garden." Journal of Musicology 10 (Spring 1992): 192-230.

The idea that Joseph Haydn was the predominant influence on Mozart's 1773 Viennese string quartets (K. 168-173) began with Otto Jahn and has been repeated and elaborated in much of the Mozart literature. Stylistic traits such as motivic development, irregular phrase length, contrapuntal texture, fugal finales, inversion of the subject, slow introductions, and so on are not specific to Haydn, but are either part of a broader Viennese tradition or have precedents in Mozart's earlier works. Nearly every observer of these quartets has noted the thematic similarity of the second movement of K. 168 with Haydn's Op. 20, No. 5, fourth movement. But a more convincing model is Ordonez's Quartet in C minor, Op. 1, No. 3, in which almost every parameter suggests a direct influence. The quartets K. 168-173 were intended for a specifically Viennese taste; many of the movements conform to a character reportedly favored by Joseph II, since Leopold and Wolfgang Mozart made the trip to Vienna in order to be in place if the Imperial Kapellmeister Florian Leopold Gassmann were to die. After they returned to Salzburg, Mozart wrote two symphonies, the first of which, the "Little" G minor Symphony, K. 182, has been linked with Mozart's supposed encounter with the "crise romantique" in Austrian music, as represented by Haydn and Vanhal among others. Yet the symphony is indebted to the music of Gassmann (his Quartet in G minor, Hill 476, No. 2 in particular) and to Mozart's knowledge of the repertoire in the "pathétique" style intended for Joseph II. (MP)

Index classifications: 1700s

Brown, Bruce A. "Le pazzie d'Orlando, Orlando paladino and the Uses of Parody." Italica 64 (1987): 588-89.

Index classifications: 1700s

Brown, Howard Mayer. "The Chanson Spirituelle, Jacques Buus, and Parody Technique." Journal of the American Musicological Society 15 (Summer 1962): 145-73.

Chansons spirituelles were spiritual songs encouraged and disseminated by the Calvinists for performance in the home. Except for one collection, all extant chansons spirituelles are in the form of text, meant to be set to well-known secular songs. The exception is a collection by Jacques Buus from 1550. Four of his pieces are based on preexisting works. In these chansons Buus's method of composition involves the reshaping of a tune by compression or fragmentation, which is then surrounded by new material. In an earlier secular chanson anthology (1543), Buus parodies eight models. Typically, he either quotes the existing material exactly and surrounds it with new material, or treats each voice as a model to be paraphrased, with one in particular dominating.

Works: Buus: A toy Seigneur (158), Chantons de cueur (158), Christ souffrit peine (157), Pour ung plaisir (157), Content desir (164), Vivre ne puis content (164), Ces fascheaux sotz (164), Doulce mémoire (164), Dieu vous gard (165). (JFA/SB)

Index classifications: 1500s

Brown, Howard Mayer. Instrumental Music Printed before 1600: A Bibliography. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967.

[Has a list of all printed arrangements before 1600 with their sources.]

Index classifications: 1500s

Brown, Howard Mayer. Music in the French Secular Theater, 1400-1550. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963.

[Has extensive lists of related compositions.]

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Brown, Howard Mayer. "Emulation, Competition, and Homage: Imitation and Theories of Imitation in the Renaissance." Journal of the American Musicological Society 35 (Spring 1982): 1-48.

Due to the recovery of a few sixteenth-century compositional drafts, attention has recently been turned to the process of composition in the Renaissance. It appears, from these manuscripts, that students of composition were still being taught to compose one line at a time and learned their craft by imitating older masters, modeling new pieces directly on old ones. Emulation was not only pedagogical but may have also been used as a means of competition or of paying homage to other composers. Composers of chansons in the fifteenth century imitated one another in various ways. All of these kinds of emulation in composition seem to relate directly to the late medieval and Renaissance concept of imitation, known to Tinctoris and applied to music possibly as early as the late fourteenth or early fifteenth centuries. Presumably it was taught as well. Some theories concerning imitation in music, particularly those of Lewis Lockwood, are relevant to the topic. Before the advent of syntactic imitation, there were two principal methods of composition, which continued through the sixteenth century. The first consisted of the addition of new lines around a cantus firmus, the medieval contribution to polyphony. The second relied on the newer techniques of imitatio beginning in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries.

Works: Anonymous: En contemplant la beaulté de m'amye (2-6, 8, 15); Isaac: Helas que pourra devenir mon cueur (15-21, 25); Anonymous: On est bien malade par amer trop (21-25); Busnois or Caron: Cent mille escus quant je voldroie (25-29); Anonymous: La Martinella (32-34); Isaac: La Martinella (35-37).

Sources: Anonymous: Vivent vivent en payx tous loyaux pastoreaux (6-8); Caron: Helas que pourra devenir mon cueur (15-19), O vie fortunée (25-29); Busnois: On a grant mal par trop amer/On est bien malade (21-23); Martini: La Martinella (29-35). (WJM)

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Brown, Howard Mayer. "The Chanson rustique: Popular Elements in the 15th and 16th Century Chanson." Journal of the American Musicological Society 12 (Spring 1959): 16-26.

Chansons rustiques existed in both monophonic and polyphonic versions. Few sixteenth-century chansons rustiques survive, although some of the popular monophonic tunes can be reconstructed from polyphonic chansons that incorporate the original. These preexisting tunes are most often found as a cantus firmus in the tenor of the new work, with or without new text added to the free voices; as two cantus firmi in canon surrounded by new material; as a cantus firmus in the superius; or paraphrased in multiple voices. Polyphonic chansons rustiques prior to 1500 show more contrast between the new and preexistent material, while those after 1500 integrate imitation more carefully. Composed works in this manner indicate that the division between popular and courtly style was beginning to dissolve. (JFA)

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Brown, Howard Mayer. "Embellishment in Early Sixteenth-Century Italian Intabulations." Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 100 (1973-74): 49-83.

Embellishment in sixteenth-century intabulations ranged from the more sparing use of ornaments by mid-century lutenists to a much heavier and consistent use of ornamentation in the 1580s and 1590s. A comparison of several intabulations from the mid-century reveals a similar procedure of applying embellishments to obscure points of imitation and repeated sections of the vocal model. The lack of concern for bringing out the structure of the model and the freedom with which ornaments were applied shows how mid-century lutenists prized variety more than structural clarity. In the intabulations of Francesco da Milano and Francesco Spinacino, original vocal models are transformed into idiomatic pieces through a more motivic use of graces and through recomposition of certain passages. While the practice of free embellishment through idiomatic figuration continued throughout the sixteenth century as a special technique of virtuoso soloists, the systematic exploitation of stereotyped graces led to diverse figuration patterns and a rich network of motives used in intabulations as well as variation sets in the second half of the century.

Works: Intabulations of O s'io potessi by Barberiis, Bianchini, Gintzler, and Vindella (56-62); Francesco da Milano: Intabulation of Las je me plains (72); Spinacino: Intabulation of Mon souvenir (74-75), Arrangement of La bernardina (78).

Sources: Arcadelt or Berchem: O s'io potessi, donna (56-62); Sermisy: Las je me plains (72); Ghizeghem: Mon souvenir (74-75); Josquin: La bernardina (78). (JSB)

Index classifications: 1500s

Brown, Jennifer Williams. "'Con nuove arie aggiunte': Aria Borrowing in the Venetian Opera Repertory, 1672-1685." Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1992.

Index classifications: 1600s

Brown, Jennifer Williams. "On the Road with the 'Suitcase Aria': The Transmission of Borrowed Arias in Late Seventeenth-Century Italian Opera Revivals." Journal of Musicological Research 15 (1995): 3-23.

Although aria borrowing was commonplace in opera history, the distinctive feature of the "suitcase aria" was that it was re-used by the same performer. An investigation of opera performances in late seventeenth-century Italy shows that borrowed arias were not transmitted by individual singers but were exchanged between singers. Certain other singers and impresarios maintained an aria repertory and served as brokers for other cast members. A more apt metaphor for this type of collaborative sharing might be the "recycling box" rather than the "suitcase."

Works: Giovanni Legrenzi: Etecole e Polinice (6-7, 11-13), Germanico sul Reno (13-15); Domenico Freschi: L'onor vindicato (6-7); [Carlo Pallavincino?]: Bassiano (8-10); Antonio Cesti: Il Tito (10-11)

Sources: Pietro Andrea Ziani: Il talamo preservato (6-9, 11-13); Domenico Freschi: Sardanapolo (6) (FC)

Index classifications: 1600s

Brown, Rae Linda. "William Grant Still, Florence Price, and William Dawson: Echoes of the Harlem Renaissance." In Black Music in the Harlem Renaissance: A Collection of Essays, ed. Samuel A. Floyd, Jr., 71-86. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990.

While William Grant Still's Afro-American Symphony, Florence Price's Symphony in E Minor, and William Dawson's Negro Folk Symphony are examples of American musical nationalism, they also represent the culmination of the Harlem Renaissance, an affirmation of the black cultural heritage in which composers sought to elevate the Negro folk idiom to symphonic form. Still's Afro-American Symphony is based on a theme in the Blues idiom. The second theme of the first movement of Dawson's Negro Folk Symphony is based on the spiritual "Oh, M' Littl' Soul Gwine-a Shine," and the two themes of the third movement are based on the spirituals "O Le' Me Shine, Lik' a Mornin' Star" and "Hallelujah, Lord I Been Down into the Sea." In Symphony in E Minor, Price is more subtle in her use of elements from the Afro-American folk tradition: her instrumentation calls for African drums; the principal theme of the first movement and its countermelody are built upon a pentatonic scale (the most frequently used scale in Afro-American folk songs); and the third movement is based on the syncopated rhythms of the Juba, an antebellum folk dance. (RLS)

Index classifications: 1900s

Brown, Robert L. "Classical Influences on Jazz." Journal of Jazz Studies 3 (Spring 1976): 19-35.

From the earliest beginnings of jazz, classical music has played a role in its development. Early and pre-jazz musicians were known to have performed classical music publicly, and others, such as Scott Joplin, studied with European teachers. As jazz moved into the twentieth century, the borrowing of classical music instrumentation became prominent. In the 1950s, jazz musicians employed fugal writing, as exemplified by Dave Brubeck's Fugue on Bop Themes, among other works. In the 1960s, twelve-tone rows were utilized, as exemplified by Bill Evans's T.T.T. Also, the procedure known as "jazzin' the classics" has been a constant feature within jazz tradition, from Jelly Roll Morton's recording of a version of the Misere from Il Trovatore through Joe Walsh's synthesized arrangement of Ravel's Pavane of the Sleeping Beauty. An appendix includes selective annotated discography.

Works: Brubeck: Fugue on Bop Themes (22); Lewis: Vendome (23), Three Windows (23), Concorde (23), Versailles (23); Hampton: Fugue (23); Williams: Prelude and Fugue (23); Ferguson: Passacaglia and Fugue (23); Johnson: Music for Brass (23); Schuller: Abstraction (23); Bank: Equation Part I (23); De Franco: 12-Tone Blues (23); Giuffre: Densities I (23); Farberman: . . . Then Silence (23); Smith: Elegy for Eric (23); Schifrin: The Ritual of Sound (23); Coltrane: Miles Mode (24); Evans: T.T.T. (24-25); Heckman: The Twelves (26); Waller: Russian Fantasy (26); Morton/Verdi: Misere (26-27); Gershwin: The Man I Love as performed by Paul Whiteman (27); Ellington: Ebony Rhapsody (27); Walsh/Ravel: Pavane of the Sleeping Beauty (30); Ginastera: Toccata as performed by Emerson, Lake, and Palmer (30).

Sources: Liszt: Rigoletto Concert Paraphrase (26); Rossini: William Tell Overture (26); Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite (26); Rachmaninoff: Prelude in C sharp Minor (26); Verdi: Il Trovatore (26-27); Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 (27); MacDowell: To a Wild Rose (27); Rimsky-Korsakov: Song of India (27); Wagner: Tristan and Isolde (27); Bach: Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (27), Passacaglia in C (27); Stravinsky: Rite of Spring (28, 30); Ginastera: Toccata (30); Ravel: Mother Goose Suite (30). (EU)

Index classifications: 1900s, Jazz

Brown, Royal S. Overtones and Undertones: Reading Film Music. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.

Certain characteristics of "classical" music (in styles from Baroque to late Romantic) were adopted and changed in the music of the early cinema. On the surface, film music from the mid 1920s through the early 1940s shares certain aesthetic principles with the music of Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven, such as a similar manipulation of themes and motives. Although many existing compositions were employed in early film scores, the aesthetics of the music newly composed for film are the primary focus (Chapters 2-3, pp. 12-66). The "Interviews" section (pp. 269-334) offers candid discussions of and useful insights into the compositional process of film music composers, such as the comment from Harold Shore that "You're constantly in the music library digging up old records, writing new pieces, parodying pieces of this or that." (DBO)

Index classifications: 1900s, Film

Brown, Thomas Alan. The Aesthetics of Robert Schumann. New York: Philosophical Library, 1968.

Index classifications: 1800s

Browner, Tara. "'Breathing the Indian Spirit': Thoughts on Musical Borrowing and the 'Indianist' Movement in American Music." American Music 15 (Fall 1997): 265-84.

The "Indianist" composers of the period 1890-1920 took two approaches to the Native melodies that they used: music as raw material, and music as culture. Edward MacDowell used the Native melodies collected by Theodore Baker in his Über die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden (1882). For MacDowell, these tunes were strictly raw musical material, with no reference or attention to tribal sources. Whatever cultural interpretation he made of the music is a generic one based on Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of "cultural evolutionary stages." Arthur Farwell's source of Native melodies came from the work of Alice Fletcher and Francis LaFlesche, whose research focused on the Omaha nation and dealt extensively with cultural context. Ultimately, the Indianist composers sacrificed cultural authenticity as a result of their attempt to make the music accessible for a consumer culture.

Works: Edward MacDowell: Second ("Indian") Suite, Op. 48 (268-71), Second Sonata (Eroica), Op. 50 (271); Arthur Farwell: American Indian Melodies: "The Old Man's Love Song" (277, 279).

Sources: Kiowa melody, collected by Theodore Baker: "Kiowa Song of a Mother to Her Absent Son" (269-71); Omaha melody, collected by Alice Fletcher: "Be-Thae Wa-An" (277-78). (FC)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Bruna, Ellen Carole. "The Relationship of Text and Music in the Lieder of Hugo Wolf and Gustav Mahler." Ph.D. diss., Syracuse University, 1974.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Brunner, Wilhelm-Horst. "Walthers von der Vogelweide Palästinalied als Kontrafactur." Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 92 (1963-64): 195-211.

Index classifications: Monophony to 1300

Bruns, Steven Michael. "'In stilo Mahleriano': Quotation and Allusion in the Music of George Crumb." American Music Research Center Journal 3 (1993): 9-39.

The works of Gustav Mahler have exerted a profound influence on those of George Crumb, especially in the latter's settings of Federico Garcia Lorca's poetry. These influences include formal and tonal designs, instrumentation, notation, poetic imagery, motivic structure, and theatrical effects. Self-quotation is also present in Crumb's music, as in the finger-cymbal crashes in Echoes of Time and the River and Night Music I. Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde has also been a fertile source for Crumb, as his Songs, Drones and Refrains of Death borrows from it heavily. The use of a guitar and mandolin in Mahler's Symphony No. 7 is echoed in Crumb's Songs, Drones and Refrains of Death, Eleven Echoes of Autumn, 1965, and Makrokosmos I. An oboe figure from the Mahler is obviously evoked in Ancient Voices of Children.

Works: Crumb: Night Music I (9-14, 16-17, 22), Echoes of Time and the River (9, 14, 20), Ancient Voices of Children (10, 24-33), Eleven Echoes of Autumn, 1965 (12-15, 20, 24, 33), Songs, Drones and Refrains of Death (14-15, 17-20, 26), Makrokosmos I (15-17), Night of the Four Moons (21-24, 33), Five Pieces for Piano (36).

Sources: Bartok: Out of Doors (11); Mahler: Symphony No. 7 (10, 15, 17, 33, 35-6), Das Lied von der Erde (12, 15, 17, 20-33), Symphony No. 6 (17, 33), Symphony No. 5 (20), Das Klagende Lied (20), Symphony No. 9 (21); Haydn: Symphony No. 45, Farewell (21-22); Mahler: Symphony No. 3 (29), Symphony No. 4 (29). (MEG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Budde, Elmar. "Zitat, Collage, Montage." In Die Musik der sechziger Jahre, ed. Rudolf Stephan, 26-38. Mainz: B. Schott's Söhne, 1972.

Index classifications: 1900s

Budde, Elmar. "Zum dritten Satz der Sinfonia von Luciano Berio." In Die Musik der sechziger Jahre, ed. Rudolf Stephan, 128-44. Mainz: B. Schott's Söhne, 1972.

Index classifications: 1900s

Budde, Elmar. "Bermerkungen zum Verhältnis Mahler-Webern." Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 33 (1976): 159-73.

There are many connections between Mahler and the Second Viennese School. At least one example of melodic resemblance exists, but more important is Webern's distinctive orientation to sound, for which Mahler is the predecessor. The flow of the movement is suspended in a number of episodes in Mahler's Tempo di Minuetto (Symphony No. 3) and Lied von der Erde. The extremely transparent orchestration and the equal importance of all the parts--often combined with ritardando--constitute "spaces of sound" (Klangräume), structuring the piece formally. The "space of sound" in Webern's fourth variation of the second movement of the Symphony Op. 21 becomes the axis of symmetry on which the whole work is constructed and to which all the other "sound-identical" spaces are structurally related. The comparisons between Webern's symphony and Mahler's Lied von der Erde seem to imply not only that Webern was influenced by Mahler but that the "spaces of sound" in Webern can be traced from specific episodes in Mahler's work.

Works: Webern: Langsamer Satz for String Quartet (165); Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6 (170); Symphony, Op. 21 (172). (AG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Budden, Julian. "Verdi and Meyerbeer in Relation to Les vêpres siciliennesm" Studi verdiani 1 (1982): 11-20.

Index classifications: 1800s

Buelow, George J. "The Case for Handel's Borrowings: The Judgment of Three Centuries." In Handel Tercentenary Collection, ed. Stanley Sadie and Anthony Hicks, 61-82. London: Macmillan, 1987.

The issue of musical borrowing in Handel's music has contributed to an atmosphere of ignorance and suspicion in the 200-year history of Handel scholarship. This has resulted from a failure to recognize the importance of craftsmanship and rhetorical imitation as important aspects of Handel's compositional technique. While writings on Handel in the early eighteenth century are generally uncritical of Handel's borrowing procedure (to the extent that Handel significantly improves on his models), a certain uneasiness about the composer's borrowings is manifested in writings from the late eighteenth to the early nineteenth centuries, especially in English scholarship. Writings on Handel in the nineteenth century are generally characterized by disapproval of Handel's procedure as lacking originality and even suggesting immorality. This attitude has changed only slowly in the twentieth century, and only in the past twenty years has scholarship begun to approach a more balanced view of Handel's borrowing technique and its significance to his style. In order to achieve this balance it is necessary to develop more useful tools, such as catalogues of Handel's borrowings and self-borrowings and a bibliographical survey of relevant literature, as well as clearer terminology to describe types of musical borrowing in Handel. (AJF)

Index classifications: 1700s

Buelow, George J. "Handel's Borrowing Techniques: Some Fundamental Questions Derived from a Study of Agrippina (Venice, 1709)." Göttinger Händel-Beiträge 2 (1986): 105-28.

Handel relied more than most composers on reuse and reworking of existing material. However, the majority of these instances should not be classified as borrowings. The notion of constructive principles, or using models and common formulas, was essential to the Baroque style. Therefore scholars should exercise caution in labeling passages as "borrowings" based only on a melodic motive or measure of similarity. For example, the arias No. 22, "Cade il mondo," from Agrippina, and "Caddi, e ver" from La Resurrezione, are likely modeled on "Fällt ihr Mächtigen" from Keiser's opera Nebucadnezar. The similar harmonic sequence, as well as the common motive, provide convincing evidence that this is indeed a borrowing. On the other hand, the aria "Sperero," labeled by Bernd Baselt as a borrowing from Rodrigo, appears to be similar only in the opening motive of the voice part, and this evidence is not conclusive enough to classify the passage as a borrowing. Clarification of terminology will help to remedy these misunderstandings regarding Handel's borrowing techniques. "Parody" should be restricted to literal or almost literal reuses of material with a different text, where structure and musical substance remains intact. Literal repetition of the same piece, including the text, should be termed "reuse." "Reworking" defines a musical idea that has been modified, and "new work" describes those works which use brief motives or themes to form a new piece. Also, Handel frequently does not match new texts with similar Affections in his use of preexistent material in Agrippina. An appendix summarizes the sources for Agrippina and the ways Handel uses them. (BP)

Index classifications: 1700s

Buelow, George J. "Mattheson's Concept of 'Moduli' as a Clue to Handel's Compositional Process." Göttinger Händel Beiträge 3 (1989): 272-78.

Johann Mattheson, in his Vollkommener Capellmeister, suggests that a composer have at his disposal a number of what are called "moduli." These consist of "modulations, little turns, clever motives, pleasing figures" and the like, that the composer can apply to his own melodic invention. The origins of these "moduli" are not as important as their usage, because even great ideas poorly used will amount to nothing. Handel used the "moduli" often as an integral part of his compositional process. Three different melodic figures are given, with numerous examples of how Handel developed these into themes. (FC)

Index classifications: 1700s

Buelow, George J. "Originality, Genius, Plagiarism in English Criticism of the Eighteenth Century." In Florilegium Musicologicum: Festschrift Hellmut Federhofer zum 75. Geburtstag, ed. Christoph-Hellmut Mahling, 57-66. Tutzing: Hans Schneider, 1988.

The view that originality is the main force in the creative process grew out of the extended period of influence that humanism held over the arts in England and the rest of Europe. During this time, imitation of ancient authors was an accepted and even required practice. The reaction of those concerned with the excesses and questionable morality of artists who copied literally from other sources led to a considerable literature on imitation and plagiarism. It is in the middle of the eighteenth century, and first in England, that the concepts of both originality and plagiarism became significant elements in critical writings. To be unoriginal could only mean a lack of genius. This foundation of new ideas made possible much of the further development of aesthetic criticism and artistic achievement in all the arts in the nineteenth century. (WJM)

Index classifications: 1700s

Buelow, George J. "A Bach Borrowing by Gluck: Another Frontier." In Eighteenth-Century Music in Theory and Practice: Essays in Honor of Alfred Mann, ed. Mary Ann Parker, 187-203. Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Pendragon, 1994.

Christoph Willibald Gluck used a theme borrowed from the gigue of Bach's Partita No. 1 in B-flat major in three of his own operas. Of Gluck's biographers, only Anna Amalie Abert notes that Gluck used the first part of Bach's gigue. Gluck was probably attracted by the gigue's agitated character, its leaping melodic line, and its repeated dissonant appoggiaturas. In the three arias in which this theme is used, the characters are suffering from an emotional crisis. Gluck adds an ornamented upbeat to Bach's theme, and uses a section of the theme in the bass line. The extent of Gluck's adaptation makes this a true borrowing, rather than a "paraphrase" as Klaus Hortschansky argues.

Works: Christoph Willibald Gluck: Iphigénie en Tauride, "Je t'implore et je tremble" (188, 192-95, 198-203), Telemaco, "S'a estinguer non bastate" (195-96), Antigono, "Perchè, se tanti siete" (189).

Sources: Johann Sebastian Bach: Partita No. 1 in B-flat major, BWV 625 (188, 189-91, 194); Christoph Willibald Gluck: Telemaco, "S'a estinguer non bastate" (189, 195-96). (FC)

Index classifications: 1700s

Buelow, George J., and Hans Joachim Marx, eds. "Bericht über die Bologneser Study Session: Das Parodieproblem bei Handel. Göttinger Händel Beiträge 3 (1989): 259-95.

[With contributions by Bernd Baselt, George J. Buelow, Hans Dieter Clausen, John Walter Hill, Christine Ickstadt, and Hans Joachim Marx.]

Index classifications: 1700s

Bukofzer, Manfred F. "The Caput Masses and Their Plainsong." In Report of the International Musicological Society Fourth Congress, ed. Schweizerische Musikforschende Gesellschaft, Ortsgruppe Basel, 82. Basel: Bärenreiter-Verlag, 1949.

Index classifications: 1400s

Bukofzer, Manfred F. "Caput Redivivum: A New Source for Dufay's Missa Caput." Journal of the American Musicological Society 4 (Summer 1951): 97-110.

Fragments of a newly discovered English manuscript contain a portion of the Agnus Dei from Dufay's Missa Caput, as well as portions of a different cyclical Mass. This new discovery strengthens the probability that Dufay borrowed the tenor of his Missa Caput from another unknown Caput Mass by an English composer. Several stylistic differences between the Mass of the manuscript and Dufay's Missa Caput exist as evidence of Dufay's English influence. These include: (1) the presence of a fourth voice acting as bass; (2) the bipartite division of each movement; (3) contrasting of parts by means of triple and duple meter; (4) introductory duets in each part; and (5) imitations between the free voices. Evidence also suggests that Dufay composed the Kyrie of the Missa Caput approximately ten years after the rest of the mass. This includes stylistic differences between the Kyrie and the other movements, an entry in the Cambrai archives which notes the copying of "'les kyriels' of the Caput Mass" into choirbooks, and the fact that the English cyclical Mass, which Dufay adopted, typically omitted the Kyrie. (BP)

Index classifications: 1400s

Bukofzer, Manfred F. "Interrelations between Conductus and Clausula." Annales musicologiques 1 (1953): 65-103.

Although generally considered to be two directly opposed forms, the conductus and the clausula have many interrelations. One unifying feature is that the upper voices in both forms are written in the same style. Both forms employ melismas, albeit to different extents. Sometimes features from the two genres blend together in one piece. In the three-part conductus Si membrana esset celum, the melisma is based entirely on plainsong. This would be done in the same manner in a clausula. On the other hand, entire sections of clausulae are sometimes inserted directly into the fabric of conducti. Thus, these two genres have much more in common than was originally believed.

Works: Conductus: Parit preter morem (69), Veris ad imperia (70), Legis in volumine (70), Purgator criminum (70), Suspirat spiritus (70), Ver pacis aperit (71), Isaias cecinit (71), Flos de spina procreatur (71), Ave Maria gratia plena (72), Adiuva nos (72), Si membrana esset celum (74), Benedicamus Domino (76), Dic Christi veritas (89).

Sources: Estampie: Piec'a que savoie (69); Song: A l'entrada del tens clar (70); Conductus: Veris ad imperia (70); Blondele de Nesle: L'Amour donc sui espris (70), Ma joie me semont (71); Sequence: Laetabundas (71), Flos spina procreatur (71), Deus creator omnium (76). (RCD)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300

Bukofzer, Manfred F. Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1950.

Understanding a wide breadth of material is essential in comprehending the music and musical practices of both the medieval and renaissance periods. Practices of musical borrowing underwent many changes throughout the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. In chapter one, a comparison of two fourteenth-century motets, Deus militum/De Flore martyrum/Ave Rex gentis and Ave miles/Ave rex patrone/Ave Rex shows how two different pieces borrowed from the same plainchant melody. Both tenors begin the same way, then diverge by adopting two contrasting rhythmic patterns. The Fountains Fragment, as is described in detail in chapter three, preserves various polyphonic pieces which illustrate the manner in which plainchant was transformed into these newer pieces, producing a much different affect primarily through rhythmic means. Chapter seven focuses on the basse dance as people in the fourteenth century used it: not for dancing, but for liturgical pieces. Overall, many transformations occurred in music over the span of these four centuries, and much of this centered on some form of borrowing practices.

Works: Motet: Deus tuorum militum/De Flore martyrum/Ave Rex gentis (17-33), Ave miles/Ave rex patrore/Ave Rex (17-29); Anonymous Mass in British Museum, Add. 40011 B and Old Hall (102-11); Leonel Power: Missa Alma redemptoris (223-24).

Sources: Antiphon: Antiphonale Sarisburiense (18-29), Ave regina caelorum, mater regis (18-29); Plainchant: British Museum, Add. 40011 B Sanctus No. 7 (102-11), British Museum, Add. 40011 B Agnus No. 11 (102-11); Basse dance: La Spagna (191-212). (RCD)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Bukofzer, Manfred F. "Caput: A Liturgico-Musical Study." Chap. in Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music, 217-310. New York: Norton, 1950.

The source on which the cantus firmus of the Caput Masses by Dufay, Ockeghem, and Obrecht is based is the melodic variant of the melisma on the final word "caput" from the antiphon Venit ad Petrum of the Sarum use. English influence on the earliest Mass (still considered Dufay's) can be seen in its use of the Kyrie trope Deus creator omnium, a melody appearing almost invariably in troped Sarum Graduals. The fact that the Sarum Processionals have not been reprinted with their music may be the reason why the source of the caput melody has remained undiscovered for so long. It appears, however, in the facsimile edition of the Graduale Sarisburiense since 1894. Dufay's tenor corresponds to the caput melisma except for two notes and the arrangement of the ligatures. This is important for the comparison with Ockeghem's and Obrecht's Caput masses, since they take over not only the exact rhythmic layout of Dufay's cantus firmus, but often its major divisions by rests as well. Therefore Ockeghem and Obrecht must have used the mass of their predecessor as a model and springboard. Van den Borren's hypothesis that Ockeghem's mass might be the earliest one of the three cannot be true, since it omits the first part of the cantus firmus in the Christe and "since it is most unlikely that partial presentation should precede integral presentation." Ockeghem follows the model more closely than Obrecht. While the former borrows the arrangement of the ligatures and quotes the cantus firmus in the tenor voice only, Obrecht treats it more freely, shifting it to other voices and transposing it between the movements.

Works: Dufay: Missa Caput (256-66); Ockeghem: Missa Caput (263-69); Obrecht: Missa Caput (264-65, 269-71).

Sources: Antiphon: Venit ad Petrum (242-49); Dufay: Missa Caput (263-71). (AG)

Index classifications: 1400s

Burkholder, J. Peter. All Made of Tunes: Charles Ives and the Uses of Musical Borrowing. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "Charles Ives the Avant-Gardist, Charles Ives the Traditionalist." In Bericht über das Internationale Symposion "Charles Ives und die amerikanische Musiktradition bis zur Gegenwart," Köln 1988, edited by Klaus Wolfgang Niemöller, Manuel Gervink, and Paul Terse, 37-51. Kölner Beiträge zur Musikforschung, Vol. 164. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1990.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Burkholder, J. Peter. Charles Ives: The Ideas Behind the Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "Communications." Journal of the American Musicological Society 40 (Spring 1987): 134-39.

Johannes Martini was not the first to cultivate borrowing from two or more voices of a polyphonic model, but he was the first to do so fully and consistently in his work. Perkins's "Communication" (1987) strengthens Martini's ties to the rhetorical tradition of imitatio, thereby supporting the labeling of masses based on a polyphonic source as "imitation masses." Masses based on a polyphonic source form a distinctive genre, separate from cantus firmus masses based on a monophonic source. Although the term "parody mass" is insufficient for the sixteenth-century mass based on a polyphonic model, it may serve to distinguish between the experimental fifteenth-century type and the later, mature type. (EDL)

Index classifications: 1400s, 1500s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "The Evolution of Charles Ives's Music: Aesthetics, Quotation, Technique." Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1983.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "Ives and the Four Musical Traditions." In Charles Ives and His World, ed. J. Peter Burkholder, 3-34. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "Ives and the Nineteenth-Century European Tradition." In Charles Ives and the Classical Tradition, ed. Geoffrey Block and J. Peter Burkholder, 11-33. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

Expanded version of "Charles Ives the Avant-Gardist, Charles Ives the Traditionalist."

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "Johannes Martini and the Imitation Mass of the Late Fifteenth Century." Journal of the American Musicological Society 38 (Fall 1985): 470-523.

Index classifications: 1400s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "'Quotation' and Emulation: Charles Ives's Uses of His Models." The Musical Quarterly 71 ([Winter] 1985): 1-26.

It has long been known that Charles Ives borrows from other composers and from himself. These borrowings have generally been labeled quotations. However, quotation is not the only technique Ives uses when he is alluding to other pieces. Others include modeling (emulation), paraphrasing, cumulative setting, and quodlibet. The emphasis of this article is on Ives's use of models since this has not yet been discussed. If a composer models his piece on another, he borrows the structure or reworks musical material to build the framework of the composition. The use of models is the most important factor to consider in tracing the compositional process. Motivic borrowings are only the most visible part of a deeper dependence on the sources, allusions that lead us to the pieces on which Ives modeled his compositions.

Works: Ives: Holiday Quickstep, Slow March, Turn Ye, Turn Ye, Waltz, Study No. 20 for Piano, The One Way, Charlie Rutlage, Serenity, On the Counter, The Celestial Country, West London. (AG)

Index classifications: 1800s, 1900s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "'Quotation' and Paraphrase in Ives's Second Symphony." 19th-Century Music 11 (Summer 1987): 3-25. Reprinted in Music at the Turn of the Century: A 19th-Century Music Reader, ed. Joseph Kerman, 33-55. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

Most of the borrowings in Ives's Second Symphony are not quotations but paraphrases. They are not inserted into an existing framework but form the very basis of the piece. All of the themes paraphrase American vernacular tunes, and the themes in turn provide the material for developments and transitions. In each movement one or more transitional passages are paraphrased from episodes from music by Bach, Brahms, or Wagner. This connection is the first real synthesis of American and European musical traditions in Ives's oeuvre, uniting the sound of American melody with the forms and procedures of the European symphony. (AG)

Index classifications: 1900s

Burkholder, J. Peter. "The Uses of Existing Music: Musical Borrowing as a Field." Notes 50 (March 1994): 851-70.

Although musical borrowing has been an area of study for over a century, it has never been considered as a field that extends over the whole of music history. A study of borrowing in this way may help to answer analytical, interpretative, and historical questions. Analytical tools developed to study borrowing in one musical era can give insight into music of other eras as well. A typology of the uses of existing music in new compositions would comprise several distinctions: (1) the relationship of the new work to the borrowed piece, (2) the elements of the existing work that are borrowed, (3) the structural relationship of borrowed material to the new work, (4) the alteration of the borrowed material, (5) the musical function of the borrowed material, and (6) the associative or extramusical meaning of the borrowed material. (FC)

Index classifications: General

Burkholder, J. Peter. "Brahms and Twentieth-Century Classical Music." 19th-Century Music 8 (Summer 1984): 75-83.

Defining the modern composer as a composer who emulates masterpieces of the past and in a dialectical process merges their most distinct features with a musical language of his own time, Brahms and not Wagner has to be considered the one who has written the "music of the future." The chaconne finale from Brahms's Fourth Symphony has two principal models, J.S. Bach's Chaconne for solo violin and the variation finale from Beethoven's Eroica Symphony. With Bach's piece, Brahms's finale shares the chaconne technique, the finale position of the movement, minor key in a slow triple time, the grouping of the variations in pairs, the division into three sections of which the middle one is in the parallel major, and the increase of rhythmic activity within each section. In both Beethoven's and Brahms's variations, the theme is first presented in the middle and upper registers before it is placed in the bass; the tripartite movements suggests sonata-form; and both movements end with a faster coda, which is introduced by a recollection of the movement's opening and continued by a development independent of the thematic eight-measure pattern.

Works: Brahms: Symphony No. 4, fourth movement (78), String Quartet in C Minor, Op. 51, No. 1 (79), Intermezzo in E Minor, Op. 116, No. 5 (79).

Sources: Bach: Chaconne from BWV 1004 (78); Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 in E-flat major, Op. 55, "Eroica" (78-79). (AG)

Index classifications: 1800s

Burnett, Robert and Bert Deivert. "Black or White: Michael Jackson's Video as a Mirror of Popular Culture." Popular Music and Society 19, no. 3 (Fall 1995): 19-40.

Analysis of visual and musical elements of Michael Jackson's video for his song Black or White reveals it as a series of intertextual references that generate meaning through allusions to aspects of popular culture. Intertextuality is defined according to Gerard Genette's theories of transtextuality and therefore is taken to be a relationship between "two or more texts existing or showing their presence within a work," including quotation, plagiarism, and allusion as types of intertextuality. In every scene of the video, intertextual references can be found, including the use of quintessential heavy metal guitar and drum sounds, cinematic allusions to Hitchcock and the film Raising Arizona, evocation of the militant political groups the Black Panthers as Jackson morphs into a panther, a rhythmic reference to Buddy Rich drum solos, and the inclusion of a brief section of rap.

Works: Bill Botrell and Michael Jackson: Black or White. (SLF)

Index classifications: 1900s, Popular

Burrows, Donald James. "Handel's 1738 Oratorio: A Benefit Pasticcio." In Georg Friedrich Handel: Ein Lebensinhalt--Gedenkschrift fur Bernd Baselt (1934-1993), 11-38. Halle: Handel-Haus, 1995.

A benefit performance for Handel on March 28, 1738, contained a composition advertised solely as An Oratorio. The mixture of English and Italian texts in this work continues Handel's practice in the preceding years of using texts in the native language of whatever singers happened to be available. Although Handel routinely assembled self-pasticcio operas in the 1730s, the 1738 Oratorio seems to be the only occasion in which he did this in oratorio form. Handel's pasticcio operas are listed in the appendix to HWV as A1 to A14, and A15 is used for instrumental minuets derived from opera arias; the 1738 Oratorio is worthy of inclusion as A16.

Works: Handel: An Oratorio (1738) (passim), Israel in Egypt (18, 33-24, 36), Esther (23, 37), Athalia, HWV 52 (27).

Sources: Handel: Chapel Royal Anthem, HWV 251c (17, 33), Athalia, HWV 52 (17-18, 21, 33, 35), Deborah, HWV 51 (22, 29, 34-37), My heart is inditing (22-24), Esther, HWV 50 (23-24, 33-34, 36-37), Silete Venti, HWV 242/3 (33-34), Cecilia volgi un sguardo, HWV 89 (37), Carco sempre di Gloria, HWV 87 (37), Coronation Anthem, HWV 258 (37). (FC)

Index classifications: 1700s

Burstein, L. Poundie. "Surprising Returns: The VII# in Beethoven's Op. 18 No. 3, and Its Antecedents in Haydn." Music Analysis 17 (October 1998): 295-312.

Analysis of the first movement of Beethoven's String Quartet in D major Op. 18, No. 3 (1798-1800) reveals an intriguing use of a VII# chord at the end of the development and its interaction with, and impact on, other passages in this and in the third movement. Haydn also utilized VII# or a VII#-V progression at the end of developments in more than a dozen sonata-form and sonata-rondo-form movements, including his Piano Trio No. 16 in D major. Haydn's relatively prominent use of VII#, notably in movements in D major, anticipated and influenced Beethoven's Op. 18, No. 3. Both Haydn's and Beethoven's exploitation of that device serves dramatic purposes at similar locations in the piece and exploits related chromatic motives.

Works: Beethoven: String Quartet in D Major, Op. 18, No. 3 (295-301, 308-10).

Sources: Haydn: Symphony No. 66 in B flat Major (302), String Quartet in G Major, Op. 54, No. 1 (303), String Quartet in C Major, Op. 33, No. 1 (303), Piano Sonata in E flat Major, Hob. XVI:25 (303), Symphony No. 104 in D Major (303), Piano Trio in F Major, Hob. XV:6 (304), String Quartet in D Major, Op. 20, No. 4 (304), Symphony No. 93 in D Major, (305, 306), Piano Trio in E Minor, Hob. XV:12 (305, 307), Trio for Piano, Flute (or Violin) and Strings in D Major, Hob. XV:16 (307-9). (TB)

Index classifications: 1700s

Burstyn, Shai. "Power's Anima mea and Binchois's De plus en plus: A Study in Musical Relationships." Musica disciplina 30 (1976): 55-72.

Any study of musical borrowing in the early fifteenth century can be useful in its ability to highlight both preferred compositional practices and possible biographical connections between composers. The musical and textual parallels between Power's motet Anima mea liquefacta est and its model, Binchois's chanson De plus en plus, show a careful integration of pre-existing musical material into a new musical context. Power's adaptation of the chanson melody ranges from nearly literal quotation to extensive paraphrase, and includes large-scale structural modeling. Textual similarities between these two works suggest that it may have been the text, more than any musical considerations, which prompted Power to choose De plus en plus as his model, and a recognition of these textual correlations is necessary for a full appreciation of Anima mea.

Works: Power: Anima mea liquefacta est (55-72).

Sources: Binchois: De plus en plus (55-72). (SW)

Index classifications: 1400s

Burstyn, Shai. "Dunstable and Forest: A Chapter in the History of Musical Borrowing." The Music Review 40 (November 1979): 245-56.

There are many musical similarities between Forest's Quam, Tota pulcra and Dunstable's Quam pulcra es. Assuming that the Dunstable motet was the model for the Forest motet, an investigation of borrowing procedures can ensue. Both motets are Marian antiphons that comprise texts from the Song of Songs; consequently there are many textual similarities between the two pieces. In terms of musical similarities, both pieces are English declamation motets, which feature homorhythmic textures. Harmonically, both pieces include a series of parallel first-inversion chords and similar dissonance treatment. The formal structure of Tota resembles that of Quam, and the motets feature similar mensural changes, yet melodic embellishments disguise some of the correspondences. Furthermore, both motets open with three voices in unison, which is unique among the fifteenth-century repertoire. Another striking textural similarity between the two pieces is the unvaried three-part texture, which is unlike the changing textures of many other fifteenth-century motets. Despite differences in tonalities, the pieces share similar harmonic and tonal movement in part. There are also a significant number of melodic parallelisms in the motets. These similarities point toward classifying the Forest motet as an early example of parody technique.

Works: Forest: Quam, Tota pulcra (245-56).

Sources: Dunstable: Quam pulcra es (245-56). (VLM)

Index classifications: 1400s

Busoni, Ferruccio. The Essence of Music. Translated by Rosamond Ley. London: Rockliff, 1957.

Busoni's "young classicism" views music as a simultaneous mixture of old and new styles, "the mastery, the sifting and the turning to account of all the gains of previous experiments and their inclusion in strong and beautiful forms." He believed (pp. 85-95, 150-51) that Liszt's operatic fantasies are different from the "plebeian pot-pourri" and that the transcription is a legitimate art form, because (1) Bach, Beethoven, Liszt, and Brahms wrote quality transcriptions, (2) notation itself is the transcription of an abstract idea, (3) performances are all transcriptions, (4) some great compositions sound like transcriptions, and (5) transcriptions are like variations, which also change original music.

Works: Liszt: Don Juan Fantasy (89-95), transcription of Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique (151). (DB)

Index classifications: 1800s

Butterfield, Ardis. "The Refrain and the Transformation of Genre in the Roman de Fauvel." In Fauvel Studies: Allegory, Chronicle, Music, and Image in Paris, Bibliothéque Nationale de France, MS francais 146, ed. Margaret Bent and Andrew Wathey, 105-60. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.

Borrowed refrains play a central role in the Roman de Fauvel. As pieces borrow from one another, old pieces are transformed from one genre to another and are given new verbal and musical coloring. Amour don't tele est la puissance is essentially a dit á refrains on the model of Jacquemart Giélée's Renart le Nouvel, and in fact borrows three entire refrains from this source. Han Diex ou pourrai je trouvei is made up of the fourteen-line motetus split into fragments from Nevelon d'Amieus's Dit d'Amour. A surprising amount of both refrain music and text contributed significantly to this manuscript, as is illustrated by a complete catalogue.

Works: Ballade: Douce dame debonaire (106), Ay amours tant me dure (106), Amour don't tele est la puissance (110), Han Diex ou pourrai je trouvei (111-12), La Complainte Douteuse (125-26).

Sources: Roman de Fauvel (110-31); Jacquemart Giélée: Renart le Nouvel (110-11); Nevelon d'Amiens: Dit d'Amour (111-12). (RCD)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300, 1300s

Butterfield, Ardis. "Repetition and Variation in the Thirteenth-Century Refrain." Journal of the Royal Musical Association 116 (Winter 1991): 1-23.

Refrains are elements which repeat not just within a particular piece, but also from work to work. This includes repeating between different genres, and sometimes appearing in different contexts. The persistent question that has long perplexed scholars is how exact a repetition of a refrain needs to be before it can be considered a refrain. Varying meters, rhythms, and melodies sometimes obscure an appearance of a refrain in a specific work, as in Adam de la Halle's Rondeau 72. In this work as in many others, in order to consider a specific passage a repetition of a specific refrain, precise similarities of both verbal and musical patterns must be present.

Works: Adam de la Halle: Rondeau 72 (5-7, 13-17); Motet: Que ferai, biaus sire Dieus?/Ne puet faillir a honour/Descendentibus (5-7), Ne sai ou confort trover/Que por moi reconforter/Et spera bit (5-7); Jacquemart Giélée: Renart le nouvel (5-7, 13-17); Tibaut: Le roman de la poire (5-7, 21).

Sources: Refrain: Hareu, li maus d'amer m'ochist! (5-17). (RCD)

Index classifications: Polyphony to 1300